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TEXT-BOOK 

OF 



MEAT HYGIENE 

with special consideration to ante-mortem and 
post-mortem inspection of food- 
producing animals 



BY 



MEDICAL COUNSELLOR 
RICHARD EDELMANN, Ph.D., 

Royal State Veterinarian of Saxony, Professor at the 
Royal Veterinary High School in Dresden 



WITH 157 ILLUSTRATIONS AND 8 COLORED PLATES 



Authorized Translation, with Additions, by 
JOHN R. MOHLER, A.M., V.M.D., 

Chief Pathological Division U. S. Bureau 
of Animal Industry 

and 

ADOLPH EICHHORN, D.V.S., 

Assistant in Pathology and Bacteriology, Pathological Division 
U. S. Bureau of Animal Industry 




GEO. E. HOWARD PRESS, WASHINGTON 
1908 






-v? 



UeJiARY of OGNfiRBSS?- 
two Cooies Keceiv«ei 

OCT 13 iyoa 

j^ obFt a. 



Copyiighl 190H, by 

JOHN R,. MOHLER, V.M.D.^and ADOLPH EICHHORN, D.V.S. 
Pathological Division. U. S. Bureau ot Animal Industry 



'd 




Translators' Preface 



The increasing interest manifested by the pubHc concerning all phases 
of general hygiene has also extended to their food supply, and especially 
to meat. This is not surprising when it is remembered that meat consti- 
tutes one of the most important foods of man. 

The importance of controlling the sale of meat, the necessity for 
which is almost universally recognized, demands a force of thoroughly 
trained inspectors who are competent to supervise all lines of work which 
comprise the meat industry. For the training of these experts, veterinary 
schools have been obliged to afford satisfactory opportunities for the 
student to familiarize himself with this important branch of sanitary medi- 
cine, as it is realized that a continually increasing percentage of their 
graduates are being called to responsible positions for the purpose of 
guarding the public against the dangers to which it is constantly exposed 
from the consumption of unwholesome or diseased meat. 

The United States Government, thoroughly aware of the danger to 
health from consuming meat which is unfit for food, has recently passed 
an elaborate and comprehensive law for controlling this danger. True, 
the acts of Congress of 1890, 1891, and 1895 provided for the inspection 
of meats entering interstate or export commerce, but the annual appro- 
priations had never been sufficient to enable the Government to cover all 
the establishments slaughtering for interstate trade, although all meats 
exported were being inspected in a manner satisfactory to foreign govern- 
ments. While palpable defects in the old law had been repeatedly called 
to the attention of Congress by the Department of Agriculture, it 
remained for a sensational press to so exaggerate the conditions as to call 
immediate attention to the defective features. These articles did not fail 
to excite public interest, and led the Secretary of Agriculture to inaugu- 
rate an investigation of the conditions existing at the Union Stock Yards 
and Packing Houses at Chicago, 111., by the appointment of a Depart- 
mental Committee which was authorized to make a thorough and com- 
plete investigation regarding the meat-inspection work conducted by the 
Bureau of Animal Industry. The country at this time was being deluged 
with sensational articles rich in fantasy and reeking with revolting 
stories calculated to convert the whole world to vegetarianism. These 
charges were not only against the packing houses, but to a certain extent 
reflected upon the action of the Government inspectors. The President 



iv Translators' Preface 

thereupon decided it was best to have a report from a committee not 
interested in the department, and forthwith appointed a commission before 
the completion of the investigation by the Department of Agriculture. 
The reports of both these commissions were a unit as to the integrity and 
efficiency of the Federal meat-inspection force, and agreed that there was 
urgent need for improvement in the sanitary conditions of the packing 
houses, for the enlargement of power of the Secretary of Agriculture fof 
the inspection of meat for interstate and foreign commerce, and for the 
correction of such defects in the existing law as would permit the Gov- 
ernment to inspect and supervise from the "hoof to the can" the prepara- 
tion of all meat-food products. Following the receipt of the above reports 
a special message was sent to Congress by the President of the 
United States, calling attention to the need of new and more rigid legis- 
lation, and on June 30 1906, Congress passed an eminently satisfactory 
act, which assures a wholesome and hygienic meat supply to the people, 
for the enforcement of which a permanent yearly appropriation of three 
millions of dollars is made, a sum which will permit its efficient and con- 
tinued enforcement. 

The enforcement of this law has created a demand for a concise, 
though comprehensive, text-book on the subject of meat inspection, which 
was sounded from numerous sources, and with the publication in 1907 of 
the second edition of Edelmann's recognized work on Meat Hygiene, we 
determined to undertake the preparation of an English edition of this 
valuable text-book. Inasmuch as the original work was applied by the 
author mainly to the German conditions and the official regulations of Ger- 
many, we deemed it advisable to adapt the text-book to the conditions pre- 
vailing in this country. Thus such additions and changes were under- 
taken which were found necessary in order that the work might contain 
all the information which is applicable to this country. Accordingly the 
regulations of the Department of Agriculture were inserted, and in the 
judgment of diseased carcasses special references have been made to the 
particular regulations which apply to the respective conditions. Other 
paragraphs have been included which treat of conditions that have 
attained prominence under the new meat-inspection law. In reproducing 
this work the translators have endeavored to present the subject in as 
practicable a form as possible, and always from the view of the practical 
inspector of meats. Finally, we cannot refrain from expressing our sin- 
cere thanks to the eminent author of the work who cheerfully granted to 
us the privilege of preparing an English edition of his valuable treatise, 
and we hope that our endeavors to give the work a satisfactory interpre- 
tation have been successful. 

MOHLER AND ElCHHORN. 

Washington, D. C, 

Jupe 20, 1908. 



Preface to the Second Edition 



Following the favorable consideration which this text-book on meat 
hygiene received from the reviewers and the good results obtained from 
its use in teaching meat inspection to students of veterinary medicine, as 
well as the assistance it afforded to inspectors of meat in the execution 
of this work, there seemed to be no reason for undertaking any changes 
in the outlines of the book or in its division. Therefore this second edi- 
tion scarcely differs in its general scope from the first. 

On the other hand, all the sections of the book were carefully looked 
over, and were revised in accordance with the results of investigations of 
the last four years. In various chapters it appeared necessary to revise 
completely the material, especially regarding the method of distinguishing 
the meat of the various food animals, the apparatuses for sterilizing 
conditionally passed meats, the harmless disposition of condemned meat, 
and, furthermore, the sections on piroplasmosis, sheep-pox, braxy, putre- 
faction of meat, and meat poisonings. Additions were made with refer- 
ence to the authorized regulations on the transportation of live stock, speci- 
fications regarding the marking of live animals, tables concerning the 
utilization of various meat-food substances according to Konig, a com- 
parison of the methods of examination in the inspection of various food 
animals, the non-contagious foot-and-mouth disease, the pyobacillosis of 
young hogs, etc. The statistical statements regarding the occurrence of 
diseases especially important for the inspectors of meats were obtained 
from the first published Imperial meat-inspection statistics for the year 
1904. It may be mentioned in passing that the numerous changes and 
supplements which the legislation on meat inspection experienced since 
the publication of the text-book have been carefully considered in the 
second edition. 

Appreciating the importance of good illustrations for the understand- 
ing of a text-book, several figures of the first edition have been replaced 
by better reproductions, and beside twenty-nine new illustrations were 
inserted. Of the latter several were newly prepared, some were kindly 
furnished by the interested industrial companies, but the majority were 
borrowed, with the kind consent of the authors, Hutyra and Marek, from^ 
the "Special Pathology and Therapeutics of Domesticated Animals,'" 
which also appeared as a publication of Fischer. It is mv pleasant duty 
to express my thanks to all concerned, but especially to the above men- 

v 



vi Preface to the Second Edition 

tioned authors. I also gladly express my obligations to the publishing 
house, which in a very kindly way satisfied all my wishes relative to issu- 
ing the book in a satisfactory form. 

In consideration of the numerous additions and improvements Avhich 
were undertaken in the new adaptation of the book, it was impossible to 
avoid increasing the size of the book with 53 pages in spite of endeavoring 
to be as brief as possible and of the extensive use of the small type in the 
print. May the improved second edition of the text-book on meat hygiene, 
receive the same favorable welcome as the first edition, which was 
dedicated to the privy medical counsellor, Prof. Dr. med. h. c. et phil. 
Ellenberger, in Dresden, and fulfil its purpose to the benefit of the world. 

Edelmank. 

Dresden, August, 1907. 



Table of Contents 



Page 

Introduction ". xiii 

Chapter I. Origin and Source of Meat Food 

I . Food animals 2 

A. Traffic in food .animals 3 

B. Transportation of food animals 7 

* C. Importation of food animals from foreign countries lo 

D. Insurance methods of food animals 12 

E. Condition of obliga'.ions (Guarantee) t5 

F. Age of food animals 16 



G. Slaughtering of animals. 



1. Killing methods with stunning 21 4. Further dressing of carcasses 26 

2. Slaughtering method without stun- o. Emergency slaughter 27 

ning 24 6. Official regulation concerning slaugh- 

3. Bleeding 25 ter 29 

H. Utilization of food animals 30 

1. Meat in a narrow sense 30 4. Viscera 34 

2. Fat 33 5. Offal 34 

3. Blood 34 

Chapter 11, Morphology and Chemistry of the Principal Tissues and Organs 

of Food Animals 

1. Aleat proper and its constituents 36 

A. :\Iuscles 36 

B. Connective and elastic tissues 39 

C. Fat tissue 39 

D. Bones and bone marrow A- 

E. Cartilage 4^ 

F. Blood and blood vessels 42 

G. Lymph glands and lymph vessels 43 

1. Visceral lymph glands 43 2. Body lymph glands 51 

H. Comparative anatomy of the most important viscera 54 

2. Peculiarities of the meat from various animals 57 

A. Beef. 57 

B. Veal 58 

C. JNIutton 59 

D. Goat meat 59 

E. Pork 59 

F. Horse meat 59 

G. Dog meat 60 

H. Rabbit meat 60 

J. Poultry meat 60 

K. Meat of game 60 

L. Fish meat 61 

M. Meat of crustaceans and mollusks 01 

N. Meat of reptiles and amphibians 61 

vii 



viii Contents 

Page 

3. Fraudulent substitutions of meat and their recognition 62 

A. Sheep and goat , 63 

B. Sheep, goat and deer ■ 63 

C. Hog and dog 64 

D. Rabbit and cat 64 

E. Hare and rabbit 65 

F. Cattle and horses 66 

G. Cattle and deer 70 

H. Cattle and bufTalo ' 70 

Chapter III, The Production, Preparation and Conservation of Meat 

1 . Chopped Meat 71 

2. Sausage 71 

A. Meat sausages 72 

B. Blood sausages 74 

C. White sausages 74 

D. Jelly sausages 74 

E. Sausages with larger quantities of vegetable matter 75 

3. Culinary preparation of the meat 75 

A. Boiling ; . . . 76 

B. Steaming 76 

C. Roasting y6 

D. Penetration of meat by high temperature 77 

E. Losses in meat in its preparation in the kitchen 77 

4. Conserving of the meat 78 

A. Physical conserving methods 79 

1. Conserving by the extraction of :'.. Enclosing in air-tight containers.... 70 

water 79 4. Trcserving with cold S:! 

2. Conserving by closing out the air.. 79 

B. Chemical preserving methods 87 



1. Preservation with salt 87 4. Other chemical conserving substan- 

2. Preservation with boracic acid .... 80 ces 90 

3. Preservation with stilphurous acid . . SO ."). Conservation by smoking 90 

5. Various food preparations derived from food animals. 91 

A. Meat extract 91 

B. Peptones 92 

C. Fat and tallow 92 

D. Caviar and smoked salmon 94 

Chapter IV. Regulations Governing Meat Inspection of the United States 
Department of Agriculture 

Regulation i. Scope of inspection 96 

Regulation 2. Organization of force 96 

Regulation 3. Interpretation and definition of words and terms 97 

Regulation 4. Inspection or exemption 98 

Regulation 5. Official number 99 

Regulation 6. Assignment of inspectors, e:c 99 

Regulation 7. All carcasses and products inspected 99 

Regulation 8. Notice of daily operations, etc 99 

Regulation 9. Bribery 100 

Regulation 10. Sanitation 100 

Regulation 11. Ante-mortem examination and inspection 102 



Contents ix 

Page 

Regulation 12. Post-mortem inspection at time of slaughter T03 

Regulation 13. Disposal of diseased carcasses and organs 103 

Regulation 14. "Retaining" rooms '°^ 

Regulation 15. "Condemned" rooms ^°^ 

Regulation 16. Tank rooms, tanks, and tanking ^^9 

Regulation 17. Tags, brands, stamps ^^° 

Regulation 18. Trade labels ^^^ 

Regulation 19. Reinspection ^ ^^ 

Regulation 20. Carcasses of animals not nspected ante-mortem ii4 

Regulation 21. Tank cars ~ ^ ^5 

Regulation 22. Dj'es, chemicals, and preservatives ^^^2 

Regulation 23. Preparation of meat and meat- food products 1^5 

Regulation 24. Stamps for export packages ^^" 

Regulation 25. Transportation ^ ^7 

Regulation 26. Counterfeiting, etc ■ ^-^ 

Regulation 27. Reports ^^^ 

Regulation 28. Appeals ^-^ 

^Regulation 29. Cooperation with municipal authorities 120 

Law under which the foregoing regulations are made '^-7 

Chapter V, Organization and Methods of Procedure of the Inspection Force 

1. Personnel of the inspection force •_ ^3^ 

2. The performance of ante-mortem and post-mortem inspection. . . 133 

A. Action in general ^33 

1. Aute-moi-tem inspection of food 6. Bookkeeping and eei-tiflcations of 

animals 133 findings • • l^l 

2. Inspection of slaughtered animals 7. Statistics of ante-nioitem and post- 

(meat inspection) 134 mortem inspection 151 

3'. Inspection of imported meat 145 S. Dues for ante-mortem and post- 

4. Inspection for trichina 147 mortem inspection • yoJ. 

5. Legal means of redress and com- 0. Supervision of the ante-mortem and 

plaints in the execution of meat post-mortem inspection 15^ 

150 10. Freibank !&•' 



inspection 



B. Performance of the ante-mortem and post-mortem inspection in the 

stock yards and abattoirs _• ^55 

C. The ambulatory ante-mortem and post-mostem inspection 156 

D. Extraordinary meat inspection ^50 

Chapter VL Decisions of the Veterinary Inspectors and Disposition of the 
Condemned Meat 

1 . Ante-mortem inspection i5" 

2. Inspection of slaughtered animals • • • iS^ 

A. Marking of meat ^59 

B. Disposition of condemned meat ^°^ 



1. Meat passed with restrictions 162 3. Absolutely condemned meat 170 

2. Meat of inferior quality 170 

3. Inspection of meat imported from foreign countries 180 

Chapter VII, Abnormal Conditions and Diseases of Food^-producing animals 

1. Noteworthy peculiarities within physiological limits 182 

A. Fetuses and dead-born animals 182 

B. Immature animals 18- 

C. Emaciated animals ■ 183 

D. Abnormal odor and taste of meat io4 



1. Sexual peculiarities 184 3. Absorption of odors. 

2. Influences of feeding 185 



X Contents 

Page 

E. Animals in advanced pregnancy i86 

F. Abnormal color of the fat ' 187 

G. Incompletely bled animals 188 

H. Exhausted animals 18S 

I. Dead animals i8g 

2. General pathological changes as related to meat inspection 190 

A. Disturbances of the circulation 190 

1. Hyperemia 190 4. Transudations 192 

2. Anemia 190 5. Thrombosis and embolism 192 

3. Hemorrhages 190 

B. Inflammations 193 

C. Retrogressive nutritive disturbances and infiltration of the tissues 194 

1. Atrophy 194 6. Necrosis, caseation, gangrene 196 

2. Cloudy swelling 194 7. Suppuration 197 

3. Fatty infiltration 195 S. Calcification 198 

4. Fatty degeneration 195 9. Pathological pigment formation 198 

5. Various degenerations 196 

D. Hypertrophy, hyperplasia, metaplasia 200 

E. Tumors 200 

F. Malformations 201 

3. The principal affections of tissues and organs 20T 

A. Skeleton muscles 201 

B. Connective tissue 203 

C. Fat tissue 205 

D. Bone tissue 205 

E. Cartilaginous tissue 206 

F. The other meat components 206 

G. Digestive apparatus 206 

H. Peritoneum. 209 

J. Genito-urinary apparatus 210 

K. Udder.; 213 

L. Respiratory apparatus 213 

M. Pleura 215 

N. Circulatory apparatus 215 

O. Skin .; 216 

P. Central nervous system 217 

4. Diseases of the blood and constitutional diseases . . . 217 

A. Anemia 217 - 

B. Hydremia 218 

C. Leukemia 219 

D. Rhachitis 220 

E. Osteomalacia 221 

F. Sarcomatosis and carcinomatosis. 221 

G. Cholemia, uremia, and hemoglobinemia. . 222 

5. Diseases of invasion. . . . . , 222 

A. Parasitic diseases of organs 222 

1. Parasites of the skin 222 3. Parasites of the digestive apparatus 227 

2. Parasites of the respiratory appa- 4. Parasites of the pleura and peritoneum 232 

ratus .- 225 5. Parasites of the brain 233 

B. Parasitic general diseases 234 

1. Pentastomum denticulatum 234 4. Trichinosis 246 

2. Echinococci 235 5. General diseases produced by pro- 

3. Measles 239 tozoa 252 



Contents xi 

Page 

6. Infectious diseases 252 

A. Infectious diseases, of food animals transmissible to man 257 

1. Tuberculosis 257 8. Foot and mouth disease 285 

2. Psuedo-tuberculosis 272 9. Variola 288 

3. Actinomycosis 273 10. Tetanus 290 

4. Botryomycosis 277 11. Malignant edema 291 

5. Antlirax 277 12. Septicemia 293 

6. Rabies 281 13'. Pyemia 297 

7. Glanders 282 14. Putrid intoxications 300 

B. Infectious diseases characteristic of food animals but not transmissible 

to man 301 

1 . Swine erysipelas 301 S. Vesicular exanthema 315 

2. Swine plague 304 9. Hemorrhagic septicemia 316 

3. Hog cholera 30G 10. Malignant catarrhal fever 317 

4. Contagious pleuropneumonia 309 11. Necrotic stomatitis 318 

5. Blacljleg 311 12. Diarrhea of calves 319 

6. Bradsot 313 13. Distemper and influenza of liorses . . 319 

7. Rinderpest 314 

7. Intoxications and autointoxications in slaughtered animals 320 

A. Poisoning 320 

B. Autointoxications 322 

1. Cholemia '. . 322 3. Hemoglobinemia 324 

2. Uremia 323 4. Parturient paresis 324 

Chapter VIIL Post'-mortem Changes of Meat 

1. Fermentation processes in meat 327 

2. Putrefaction of meat 328 

3. Mixed processes in the decomposition of meat 331 

4. Other microphytic changes of meat 331 

A. Moulds 331 

B. Phosphorescence 2^2)- 

C. Red and blue colorations of meat 332 

D. Diverse changes of meat 2)Z^ 

5. Insect larvae on meat 333 

6. Other changes 334 

7. Souring and rancidity of fats 335 

Chapter IX, Examination and Judgment of Prepared and Preserved Meats, as 
Well as Chickens, Game, Fish, Amphibiae and Cruslaceans 

1. Preserved and prepared meat 337 

A. Ground meat, sausages, and meats prepared by culinary methods.... ZZI 

B. Meat prepared by physical methods 340 

C. Meat prepared with chemical substances 341 

1. Pickled meat 341 2. Smolved products 343 

D. Various conserve preparations 344 

2. Examination and judging of fowls, game, fish, amphibise, crusta- 

ceans and mollusks 347 

A. Fowl 347 

1. Age 347 3. Internal diseases 349 

2. External diseases 348 4. Post-mortem changes of fowl meat.. 350 



xii Contents 

Page 

B. Game 35i 

1. Age 351 :V. Diseases 353 

2. Sex .- 352 4. Post-mortem changes 353 

C. Fish 353 

D. Crustaceans, mollusks and amphibians 356 

Chapter X. Meat Poisonings 

1. jMeat poisoning as a result of bacillus enteritidis 358 

2. Meat poisoning with bacterium coli, etc 362 

3. Botulismus 364 

Chapter XL History of Meat Hygiene 

In Europe 308 

In the United States 370 

In Canada Z1^ 

Chapter XII. Abattoirs and Stock Yards 

1 . Abattoirs '. . . 377 

A. Location of the abattoir 378 

B. Entire establishment 378 

1. (ierman ari-angement of buildings. 370 3. Combination system of arrangement. 3S2 

2. French arrangement of buildings.. 381 

C. Buildings and rooms 382 

1. Killing houses 382 7. Boiler and engine houses 385 

2. Tripe room 384 S. Slaughter hon.sos for diseased ani- 

3 . Cooling room 384 mals 385 

4. Stables 384 9. Special quarters tor officials 385 

5. Manure houses 384 10. Scale houses 385 

6. Tallow factories for rendering fat 11. Sewer connections 385 

and tallow obtained in abattoir. 384 

D. ^Management of the abattoirs 385 

2. Stock yards 386 

A. Location of stock yards 386 

B. Buildings and plants 387 

1. Special market halls |.. 387 7. Wash pens and vats 388 

2. Stables 387 8. Water supply 388 

3. Exchange building 387 9. Disinfection of ears 388 

4. Office building 388 10. Pens for stock held over .388 

5. Railroad platforms 388 11 . Quarantine yards 38S 

6. Manure yard 388 12. Plague yards 388 

C. Management of stock yards 389 



Introduction 

Regulation of the diet or hygiene has for its purpose the retaining 
and strengthening of the heahh of the human or animal organism, by 
increasing its internal resistance, and by preventing any noxious effects. In 
doing this, it is necessary in the first place, to consider the nourishment of 
the organism. Inasmuch as meat constitutes the principal foodstuff for 
the human body, the regulation of the diet of man must also extend to 
meat products. And since recently there has been considerable attention 
paid to the latter from a hygienic standpoint, justification is had for the 
use of the words "meat hygiene," by which is understood that part of 
the regimen which concerns the procurance of wholesome meat foods for 
man, their value to public health as well as the dangers which threaten 
the consumers of diseased or unsound meats. 

For the prevention of these dangers, there should be in the first place, 
an expert supervision of the meat-food products of man. Everything 
which constitutes such a supervision may be comprised in- the term of 
meat inspection or meat examination. By this should be understood the 
examination of meat and the products made of the same, relative to their 
proper origin and desirability as food for man. 

Inasmuch as these food substances are the products of animals, the 
examination can only be complete if it extends not alone to all parts of 
the slaughtered animals, but also to the food-producing animals in life. 
Accordingly it is more correct to speak of the examination as an ante- 
mortem and post-mortem inspection. 

When in the sense of this inspection the term meat is mentioned, it 
should not be exclusively applied to the striated muscles of the body, and 
the tissues in connection therewith (fat, connective tissue, nerves, blood, 
lymph glands, bones, and cartilages), but rather to all parts of the animal 
which are suitable for human consumption. 

And while the objects and duties of meat inspection are in the first 
place the prevention of the dangers which threaten human health from 
noxious meat products, yet at the same time, a well-organized meat 
inspection also undertakes the task of protecting the meat consumers in 
an economic relation from frauds and deceptions, by subjecting the meat 
which is not altogether unobjectionable regarding its origin and consist- 
ence to be sold under a compulsory declaration. 



xiv Introduction 

In the execution of these main objects, meat inspection may also ren- 
der important services in veterinary poHce work by detecting animal 
plagues, and also by extending a beneficial influence from a general 
hygienic standpoint to animal and man, by the complete harmless disposi- 
tion of all products of diseases and their specific causes. In relation to 
the latter, meat inspection should not be underestimated in its value and 
importance to general stock raising. It not only discloses to the intel- 
ligent owner of stock obscure diseases of food animals, but shows to him 
also, the means and ways by which such diseases may be eradicated and 
prevented. 

As far as the extension of jurisdiction of meat inspection is con- 
cerned, it reaches all the food animals which are customarily found in the 
respective countries (p. i), and which produce the principal mass of meat 
food. And while in the question of inspection, only those food animals are 
concerned, the meat of which is to be utilized commercially, yet it is of no 
lesser importance to the public interest that those animals should be sub- 
ject to inspection which are slaughtered for private purposes. The rea- 
sons for this absolute generalization of meat inspection for all animals 
coming for slaughter, can only be indicated at this time. They lay above 
all in the importance of meat inspection in general hygiene, which cannot 
be hindered because of private property. 

Furthermore, it is not feasible to control the possibility that meat of 
animals supposed to be slaughtered for private uses might not serve exclu- 
sively for these purposes, but might be brought, in spite of assurances, 
into the public traffic. There also belongs to a thorough meat inspection 
the control of the meat products (prepared meat), which are prepared 
from food animals, as well as the inspection of all other animals which 
are marketed and served for human food, such as game, poultry, fish, 
crustaceans, mollusks, reptiles, and amphibians. 



L Origin and Source of Meat Food 

Man takes his meat-food diet from almost all classes of animal life, 
and, therefore, the bromatologic fauna extends from the celenterates to 
the vertebrates. In general, animals which live on plant food or on the 
lower animals are furnishing the civilized nations with palatable meat, 
while the meat of animals which consume higher animals (fish, amphibia, 
reptiles, birds), are less adapted for human food. The principal meat 
foods are obtained from the class of mammals, and amongst this class 
the first place is taken by herbivorous and certain omnivorous animals, 
while those mammals which are solely carnivorous serve only rarely for 
human food. Next to the mammals, birds, and then fish supply most of 
the meat for man. Other foods which are derived from the other classes 
of animal life play only the part of delicacies, or are consumed only 
occasionally. 

1, Food Animals 

Although the animals which are slaughtered, and all those which are 
killed through the abstraction of blood may be designated as food ani- 
mals, yet only the slaughterable domesticated mammals are popularly 
regarded as such, while domestic poultry which serve as human food are 
in general not considered in the narrow sense under the conception of food 
animals. 

The domesticated mammals which are slaughtered are divided into 
large stock, hogs, and small stock, while in Austria the latter two classes 
are classified as "stock for sticking." Depending upon the nutritive con- 
dition they may be distinguished as lean stock and fat stock. Besides these 
designations there is also the pasture stock, which is composed of lean as 
well as of fattened animals. 

To the "large stock'' group belong cattle and horses, also the ass and 
mule. Buffaloes, which are only occasionally slaughtered in Germany, 
when shipped there from foreign countries, play a more important part 
as food animals in southern and southeast Europe, the same as reindeer 
in the northern countries. 

Cattle are slaughtered as male animals (bulls, bullocks) ; as castrated 
males (ox, steers) ; and as female animals (cows, heifers). 

The designation steer has not the same meaning everywhere. While in some 
places it is understood that steers are young male animals, in other parts that 
designation applies to castrated, not full grown male cattle, and in Saxony the word 

2 I 



2 Chap. I. Origin and Source of Meat Food 

steer represents only a conception of the state slaughter tax applied to certain 
animals. For this tax those cattle are designated as steers which have not yet 
shed the outside middle and the corner teeth. 

In the imperial regulations for the slaughter and meat inspection statistics the 
following designations are made : 

"Steers;" cattle of the male sex which are castrated and have reached two 

years of age ; 
"Bulls;" cattle of the male sex which have reached the age of two years; 
"Cows;" cattle of the female sex which have already calved; 
"Young stock;" cattle after reaching the age of three months when they are: 

(a) females and have not yet calved, 

(b) males, or castrated males, which have not yet exceeded the age of 

two years. 
"Calves;" cattle up to the age of three months, either males, females, or cas- 
trated animals. 

In horses the different sexes are known as stallions (male), mares 
(female), geldings (castrated male horses) ; young horses are called foals 
or fillies. 

The hogs which in Germany furnish most of the meat and which 
are of the greatest importance from the standpoint of general mainte- 
nance, are principally slaughtered as castrated males (barrows, also stags 
when they are castrated after being used for breeding purposes) and 
female animals. Besides these, boars (wild boars) and cryptorchids, as 
well as sucking and breeding sows, and occasionally very young pigs as 
roasters and suckling pigs are also slaughtered. 

Under the term "small stock" come calves, sheep and goats. Of the 
calves certain types are distinguished through their proininently marked 
development of the muscles, especially on the chest and legs. Sheep and 
goats when young are called lambs or kids ; the male animals are desig- 
nated as bucks and rams ; when castrated they are known as wethers. In 
the language of the butcher, however, the meat of all sheep, without con- 
sideration of the sex, is called mutton or lamb. 

Of the other domesticated animals the following may also be slaught- 
ered and consumed : In Germany dogs are principally slaughtered in large 
cities or in localities densely populated with the laboring class, and are, 
as a rule, slaughtered secretly and only for home use. Through the gov- 
ernment meat-inspection laws, dogs are subjected to compulsory inspec- 
tion, and they have been slaughtered and used for food in noteworthy- 
number, especially in Saxony. Cats are also occasionally slaughtered and 
have been known to be substituted for rabbits. 

Rabbits, which are slaughtered in Germany rnostly for household use, 
constitute in France and England quite a considerable commercial prod- 
uct. According to Bentel, the daily consumption of rabbits in Paris 
amounts to 10,000, and in London to 75,000. In accordance with a publi- 



Traffic in Food Animals 3 

cation of Schlieger. rabbits to the value of 80 to 90 million francs are 
annually raised in France, and Paris alone annually consumes rabbits valued 
at 5 to 6 million francs. In France, England, Belgium, and in some parts 
of Holland rabbits are not a general food of the people, but rabbit meat 
may be found daily on the tables of the rich. According to Schlieger's 
calculation a breeding farm in France, which produces 600 rabbits 
monthly, weighing 3 kg. each, affords an annual clear profit of $1,250. 

In relation to quick meat production the rabbit stands first among 
meat-producing animals. As a female rabbit may be pregnant eight or 
ten times annually, giving birth to a litter averaging six young, which 
reach after four months a weight of 2.5 kg., such a female may accord- 
ingly produce inside of a year 150 kg. of meat. 

A, Traffic in Food Animals 

The need of food animals is preferably supplied through home stock 
raising, while the importations from foreign countries (page 10) is at 
present slight, due to the prohibition or considerable restriction of the 
sanitary police regulations. 

The food animals which supply the demand of the butchers in the 
rural districts and the small cities originate usually at their home place 
or from the surrounding country, at least if there should be sufficient 
stock-raising in the vicinity to satisfy the demand. In larger cities and in 
purely industrial centers the demand of food animals cannot be supplied 
from the surrounding country, and the shipping of stock to these centers 
from stock-raising districts becomes a necessity. These shipments seldom 
occur directly, but as a rule are made from stock-yards, which are the 
collecting centers for the marketing of food animals (See Chap. XII). 
These command at present a conspicuous importance in the supply of large 
cities and extensive territories. 

The trading in food animals is principally carried out from a business 
standpoint, which even applies to the constant small tradings. The buy- 
ing and selling of a food animal is either conducted according to live 
weight or by dressed weight or off-hand (so much for each animal). 

Each deal is made through the judgment of the quality of the indi- 
vidual food animal. For this purpose, besides the general inspection, the 
buyer preferably palpates or grasps certain parts of the body which are 
especially considered on account of the fat deposits at these points. 

As a rule, it is applied in cattle to the shoulder, withers, outside surface of the 
false ribs, hind border and inner surface of the last rib, haunch, rump, flank, base 
of the tail, scrotal region in steers, and the front of the udder in cows. 

In sheep the buyer examines the subcutaneous development of fat, especially on 
the back, the lumbar region and the base of the tail ; he also estimates the weight 
by lifting the animal from the ground, and by the age. 



4 Chap. I. Origin and Source of Meat Food 

Calves are judged by their general condition, age, development of meat on the 
back and leg, also by lifting the animal off the ground. 

In hogs the chest-wall, the back, especially the withers, and the abdomen are 
preferably examined. 

Besides the nutritive condition, the following examinations are gen- 
erally made : General conformation of the food animal, size, age, condi- 
tion of health, intestinal contents, skin, hair, etc. And from all these 
conditions the buyer forms a picture as to the value of the animal for 
slaughter, and above all as to its live weight. On the correct estimate of 
the latter in connection with pertinent judging of other peculiarities of 
the animal depends entirely the principle of buying off-hand (by the 
head). 

The buying by Hve weight is conducted through an estimate of the 
value of the animal by weight during life and by the advantages and dis- 
advantages which the carcass possesses for its utilization as food. Occa- 
sionally a discount is allowed in such trades representing part of the 
waste from the intestinal content. Most frequently is this the case in the 
marketing of hogs where 20-22 per cent, of discount is sometimes agreed 
upon. It is only natural that the price per kilo of the live weight is 
arranged accordingly. 

Rieck established that the losses in weight resulting from transportation of 212 
cattle from the time they left the place of feeding until they reached the stock 
yards amounted to 7.97-8.95 per cent, of their live weight. 

In buying by dressed weight, which is practically confined only to 
stock-yards, a certain price is agreed upon at the time of the deal to be 
paid in accordance with the weight of the cooled dressed carcass. By 
dressed weight is generally understood, with the exception of certain 
regional variations — 

(a) for cattle, the weight of a bled and skinned carcass after removal of 
the head at the atlanto-occipital joint, feet at the carpus, the outside 
and inside sexual organs and other viscera with the exception of the 
kidneys ; in other words, the weight of the four quarters ; 

(b) for calves and sheep the same conditions as for cattle; 

(c) for hogs the weight of the bled and eviscerated carcass. Only the 
kidneys with the leaf-lard remain in the animal. The head, however, 
is weighed in wi'Ji the carcass, but the tongue, which remains on the 
pluck (haslets, consisting of the larynx, trachea, heart, lungs, and 
liver;, is not included. 

In all species of animals there exists a certain proportion between 
live and dressed weight, which principally depends on the nutritive con- 
dition of the animals. Well-fattened animals naturally produce a higher 



Traffic in Food Animals 



dressed weight than those which are in poor condition. The proportion of 
dressed to Hve weight is given in the following table, expressed in 
percentage : 

Dressed zn'cight represented in percentage of live weight 



Quality 


Steers 


Bulls 


Cows 


Calves 


Sheep 


Hogs 


Full flesh, fattened, highest dressed value 


58-61 


58-62 


55-60 


62-68 


48-53 


80-85 


Young, fleshy, but not fattened, older cattle fattened 


53-55 


50-56 


50-54 


58-62 


45-48 


78-82 




48 52 


46 50 


48 52 


50-56 


38-44 


70-78 




42-46 




42-46 


40-45 




76-80 







In specially good animals even a higher dressed weight can be obtained, as, for 
instance, good, well-developed young bulls may dress over 70 per cent., and the 
best fattened hogs may even dress out go per cent, of their live weight. 

Hengst, at the Leipsic stock-yards and abattoirs, established the average weights 
in a large number of food animals as follows : 





Li\'e weight 


Dressed 


weight 


Average 
dressed 


Animal species 


No. of the 
weighed 
animals 


Average 
weight 
per head 


No. of the 
weighed 
animals 


Average 

weight 

per head 


weight in 
^'t of the 

live 
weight 




9,518 
4,119 
5,067 
841 
14,197 
5,471 
6,823 


kg. 
C95.81 
647.93 
560.01 
468.55 
69.58 
53.58 
107.30 


90,115 

20,559 

62,689 

8,028 

6,653 

25,281 

146,205 


leg. 

374.55 

365.96 

277.79 

253.80 

44.01 

29.11 

89.89 


53.83 


Bulls 


56.48 




49.60 


Heifers 


54.17 




63.25 


Sheep 


54.33 


Hogs 


83.77 







For establishing the dressed weight in stock-yards dealers and butchers have, as 
a rule, agreed upon certain principles, which are usually carried out in slaughter- 
ing the animals. 

The amount of foodstuffs in the digestive tract has the most note- 
worthy effect on the relation between the live and dressed weight in the 
food animals. This depends on the kind of food, the time of slaughter, 
and the extent of driving or transportation to which the animal has been 
subjected after the last feeding. As occasionally this gives rise to decep- 
tion and fraudulent actions and causes differences between buyer and 
seller, the knowledge of certain average figures of the weight of the 
gastro-intestinal canal and its contents is of importance. 

With reference to this Wolff makes the following statement: In fasting 
animals the weight of the gastro-intestinal canal, including its contents, amounted 
in fat steers to 16. i per cent.; in medium fat steers, 19.5 per cent.; in medium fat- 



Chap. I. Origin and Source of Meat Food 



tened steers, 24.5 per cent. ; in fat calves, 10.6 per cent. ; in fat hogs, 7.9 per cent. ; 
in medium fattened hogs, 12. i per cent. 

According to Hintzen's examinations, the relative weight of this material aver- 
aged in fasting cows 18.2 per cent. ; in fasting calves, 9.2 per cent. ; in fasting 
hogs, '^.(i per cent. 

P. Falk ascertained the average weight of the contents of the stomach and 
intestines in thirty-seven cattle, and found that it represented 16.35 per cent, of 
the live weight. 

Noack, in his investigation of the indigestions of food animals, considered only 
the weight of the stomachs and their contents, and computed the results in relation 
to the dressed weights. 

The latter are perceptible from the following comparisons : 







9 


fci 
















3 a 


a 


> 


Species of animals 




M 


Tc 


° C m 

m c3 
^ Id 

■3 13 g 


Ml 








^ a 


^ 


= §l 


fe: 




















41 
.0 


% 


so 




SB 


Hi 

S a 3 a 




% 


9 .rt 





'0 S « 


> 






^ 


Q 


< 


p: . 


< 


^ 




10 

7 


300-500 
225-375 


400 
300 


49-140 
45-120 


94 5 


21.1 


Cows 


82.5 


27.5 


Bulls 


17 


250-600 


425 


45-105 


75.0 


17.6 


Total cattle 


34 


225-600 


412.5 


45-140 


92.5 


22.4 




12 
17 
15 


25.5- 55.5 
11.5- 37.0 
57.0-109.0 


40.5 

24.25 

83.0 


1.5-8.0 
3.5-9.5 
1.5-7.5 


4.75 

6.5 

4.5 


11.7 




26.8 


Hogs 


5. 4 



Against these figures Noack found the weight of stomachs from 11 steers with 
indigestion between 23 and 42 per cent, of the dressed weight. 

With reference to the absolute and relative weights of the principal organs of 
cattle (heart, lungs, liver, kidneys, and spleen), calculated on the live and dressed 
weights, see under Chap. II, i, H. 

Classification of Food Animals. — In all of the larger stock-yards 
the average prices which prevail are officially published after the close of 
the market. These prices generally refer to the live and dressed weight of 
the various food animals, but at some places only one of the two prices is 
quoted. The market quotations serve not only as a guide on the condition 
of the markets, but also afford a comparison of the various markets, and 
above all they disclose to the stock raiser, from time to time, the market 
values of food animals. 

In order to obtain the most benefit from market quotations, the repre- 
sentatives of the interested parties (stock-yard managers, stock dealers 
butchers, stock raisers) established the following uniform scheme for the 
classification of food animals, which forms at present the basis of market 
quotations at the larger stock yards : 



Transportation of Food Animals 7 

Steers : J. Steers up to 6 years in full flesh, finished as regards to fatten- 

ing, and of the highest slaughter value. 

2. Young fleshy steers, but not finished in fattening; older fattened 

steers. 

3. Moderately nourished young steers; well nourished older steers. 

4. Poorly nourished steers of all ages. 

Bulls : I. Bulls in full flesh of the highest slaughter value. 

2. Moderately nourished younger bulls. 

3. Poorly nourished bulls. 

Heifers and i. Heifers in full flesh, finished in fattening and of the highest 

Cows : slaughter value. 

2. Cows up to 7 years in full flesh, finished as regards to fattening 
• and of the highest slaughter value. 

3. Older cows finished in fattening and more poorly developed 

younger cows and heifers. 

4. Moderately nourished cows and heifers. 

5. Poorly nourished cows and heifers. 

Calves: i. The finest fattened calves (fattened on milk), and the best 

suckling calves. 

2. Moderately fattened and good suckling calves. 

3. Poor suckling calves. 

4. Older poorly nourished calves (feeders). 

Sheep : i. Fattened lambs. 

2. Young fattened wethers. 

3. Old fattened wethers. 

4. Moderately nourished wethers and ewes. 

Hogs: I. (a) Hogs in full flesh, of fine breeds, and their crossings up to 

1% years old (weight 220-280 lbs.) ; (b) fattened hogs. 

2. Fleshy hogs. 

3. Poorly developed hogs. 

4. Sows and boars. 

5. Foreign hogs. 

B, Transportation of Food Animals 

In the transportation of food animals attention must be accorded the 
animal on account of the benefit it has in the inspection of the meat, since 
as a result of shipment the condition of the animals, as well as the con- 
sistency of the flesh, may be more or less influenced. The transportation 
may take place by driving, carting, railroad, or by boat. 

Transportation by driving affects food animals to a degree corre- 
sponding with their being accustomed to outdoor exercise and the tem- 
perature of the season. This transportation is conducted with the least 
effect on horses, sheep, and such cattle which were raised on pasture; 
more difficulty is met with stabled cattle, calves, and hogs. As a rule the 
driving of cattle is only employed at the present time for short distances, 



8 Chap. I. Origin and Source of Meat Food 

and for longer distances only in such cases where the cattle are well 
accustomed to long drives. As the driving of fattened cattle affects them 
unfavorably, in accordance with the degree of their fleshiness, they are 
driven only over very short distances. The voice, sticks, and dogs are 
employed in driving the animals. While dogs can be scarcely spared in 
driving sheep, they frequently cause considerable excitement amongst the 
animals of other species. Sometimes as a means of compulsion to 
stubborn cattle the tail of the animal is twisted, which, however, 
may degenerate to a cruelty and produce as a consequence ana- 
tomical lesions in the tail (fractures, bruises, etc.). 

To prevent cattle from 
running away the so-called 
"draw-back or pulley" har- 
ness is frequently used, the 
arrangement of which can 
be seen in Fig. i. 

All animals transported 
by driving will get more or 
less excited and tire to a 
certain extent. Should such 
excited and tired animals 

Fig. I. Bull with casting apparatus (after Dick) ^^ immediately slaughter- 
ed, they will bleed out in- 
completely in most instances, and their meat will frecjuently be of a lesser 
keeping quality. Accordingly, the transported animals, as a rule, are 
slaughtered after they have been allowed a period of rest, the length of 
which must depend on the temperature of the season and the condition and 
fatigue of the animal resulting from the transportation. Some of the 
animal and meat inspection regulations prescribe a certain number of 
hours as a resting period before slaughter of transported animals. Where 
this is not the case," the veterinary inspector should, in accordance with 
his findings of the ante-mortem inspection, forbid the slaughter of the 
animals until they have regained their comfortable state and have entirely 
recovered from the effects of the transportation. 

In transporting by conveyance the vehicles must be suitably con- 
structed for the respective species of animals, and must permit a careful 
loading and unloading (Fig. 2). Fettering of the animals should be car- 
ried out only to the extent of preventing them from jumping out of the 
wagon. Forcible and painful tying of the legs of calves and sheep is not 
warranted, especially with thin, cutting strings, and the frequently prac- 
ticed crowding of animals into a too limited space is also tO' be condemned. 
The more the animals are fettered, the more they struggle, and for this 
reason the advantages of transporting by wagon are limited. In the sum- 




M._li 



Transportation of Food Animals 9 

mertime the animals should be protected against the heat of the sun, and 
hogs are advantageously cooled by occasionally pouring cold water over 
them, or, still better, by transporting them at night. 

To-day transportation by rail plays the most important part, and is 
generally carried out in accordance with appropriate regulations. For 
this method of transportation a special kind of car is employed, built espe- 
cially for the transportation of live-stock. They are of prescribed size 
and are equipped with appropriate ventilation, as well as with contriv- 
ances for the feeding and watering of the animals. 

A special kind of stock car is the so-called double-deck car, or two- 
story car, which consists of two divisions, one above the other, and is 
UAed for the shipment of sheep and hogs. But the common closed box 




Fig. 2. Wagon for transporting cattle (after Fuchs) 

cars are considered preferable by the shippers for the transportation of 
animals by rail. These, however, frequently do not answer the require- 
ments which must be demanded from a hygienic and humanitarian 
standpoint. 

For the loading and transporting of animals by rail the above-mentioned regu- 
lations are in existence, which, however, require modifications and improvement. 
Cattle, as a rule, are placed crosswise in a fully loaded car; that is, perpendicularly 
to the long axis of the car. According to Zschocke, adult bulls and steers require 
for this purpose 66 cm. and cows 57 cm. of the car length. For hogs an average 
of 0.40 qm. of floor space should be required, for calves 0.31 qm., and for sheep 0.24 
qm. per animal. 

For the transportation of hogs and small stock it is advisable to divide the cars 
with cross partitions into several compartments, and in mixed shipments separate 



lo chap. I. Origin and Source of Meat Food 

divisions for the different species of animals should be required. Only suckling 
calves are allowed to be loaded together with their mothers. 

The disadvantages and dangers of railroad transportation of food animals 
depend on various conditions. It is greater for fat animals than for lean ones. 
The closer they are loaded, the warmer the temperature, the longer the transpor- 
tation lasts, and the less suitably the cars are arranged, the greater are the disad- 
vantages. Hogs suffer comparatively the most, and deaths from suffocation and 
paralysis of the heart are not infrequent. Cattle are oftentimes greatly affected by 
the frequent switching of the cars. They may be thrown down and are then 
stepped upon by others, and may die as a result of the injuries, or even from 
suffocation. 

A peculiar disease is sometimes observed in cattle as a result of railroad trans- 
portation, and is designated as railroad sickness. This affection manifests itself as 
a severe nervous disorder, which, in a well-developed state, does not appear unlike 
parturient apoplexy. The termination of the disease is mostly unfavorable, which 
makes early slaughter of the affected cattle advisable. 

The transportation of food animals by boat comes principally into 
consideration in importations from across the sea, and for this service 
specially equipped steamers are employed. The loading and unloading 
of the animals are accompanied sometimes with considerable difficulties, 
while the transportation itself, if the weather is not stormy, is not fol- 
lowed by any more marked disadvantages than railroad transportation. 
In regard to the sheltering of the animals on boats, everything said in 
relation to railroad transportation may be applied here. 

The transportation of horses by boat is described by Horauf in a 
highly instructive article in the Berl. Thierarzt. Wochensch., No. 40, 1906. 

Concerning the above-mentioned period of rest before slaughter, this should 
be required for animals transported by wagon or boat, and it should be extended 
in accordance with the condition of the animals. Generally the time will be con- 
siderably shorter than in animals transported afoot. 

It is readily understood that food animals lose more or less of their live weight 
as a result of all kinds of transportation. It is impossible, however, to establish 
definite figures relative to that loss, on account of the great differences in feeding 
and the conditions of transportation. 

[In the United States the transportation of animals is governed by 
a decree (Public No. 340), enacted by Congress of the United States, and 
approved June 29, 1906.] 

C, Importation of Food Animals from Foreign Countries 

The importation of food animals from foreign countries into the 
territories of the German Empire is regulated by decrees from the Impe- 
rial Chancellor as well as by the governments of the allied states. 

On account of the changes in the standing of contagious diseases of 
animals in the states from which importations are made, the regulations 



Importation of Food Animals from Foreign Countries ii 

governing the importation are changed from time to time. At present 
food animals may be imported : 

1. From Austria-Hungary cattle and sheep which comply with the required 
conditions may be imported to a large number of public abattoirs. The cattle have 
to be kept separated from the domestic cattle and have to be slaughtered inside of 
a certain time-limit (4 days). Besides, permission is granted to import annually 
80,000 hogs for immediate slaughter, 50,000 of them to the boundary abattoirs of 
Bavaria, namely, Passau and Rossenheim, and 30,000 to the abattoirs of Bodenbach 
lying on the boundary of Bohemia. The meat of these hogs is permitted to be 
sold only at certain places. The importation of cattle from Austria-Hungary was 
fundamentally regulated in the agreement on contagious diseases between the Ger- 
man Empire and Austria-Hungary of January 25, 1905, which went into effect 
Aferch I, 1906. Accordingly, the allied states have issued special regulations. 

2. Hogs from Russia may be imported weekly in exactly specified numbers 
into certain abattoirs at Benthen, Kattowitz, Myslowitz, Tarnowitz. 

3. Cattle from Denmark may be brought to specified quarantine stations, in 
which they remain 10 days for the purpose of a tuberculin test. After this time, 
the cattle which failed to react to the tuberculin test may be shipped for immediate 
slaughter to the abattoirs which are open for Austro-Hungarian cattle. The 
reacted cattle cannot be utilized in Germany, but miist be again exported. 

The result of the post-mortem inspection of the cattle slaughtered must be 

submitted to the quarantine authorities, and those animals found to be tubercular 

must be particularly specified. (Proclamation of the Imperial Chancellor of Feb- 

'ruary 21, 1898, in relation to the procedure of imported cattle by the sea route from 

Denmark and Sweden-Norway.) 

4. Cattle from Switzerland accompanied by health certificates. 

5. Exceptionally cattle, sheep, goats, and hogs from Luxemburg brought to 
several public abattoirs of Alsace-Lorraine for immediate slaughter. 

The importation of prepared meat in accordance with the imperial meat inspec- 
tion law when there are no restrictions in the meat inspection law and in the laws 
on infectious diseases of animals, may be permitted from any country. Regarding 
the importation of fresh meat, there are no veterinary police prohibitions against 
the importation of all sorts of fresh meats from Russia, Roumania, Servia, and 
Bulgaria, also of fresh beef from America. The importation of cattle from North 
America is prohibited. Sheep and hogs are subjected to a quarantine of 4 weeks. 

[The importation of meat and meat products into the United States 
is subject to Regulation 32, Section 11, of the Rules and Regulations for 
the enforcement of the "Food and Drug Act," which is determined in the 
following : 

Regulation 32, Imported Food and Drug Products 

(Section 11) 

(a) Meat and meat-food products imported into the United States shall be 
accompanied by a certificate of official inspection of a character to satisfy the 
Secretary of Agriculture that they are not dangerous to health, and each package 
of such articles shall bear a label which shall identify it as covered by the certificate, 
which certificate shall accompany or be attached to the invoice on which entry is 
made. 



12 



Chap. I. Origin and Source of Meat F'ooci 



(b) The certificate shall set forth the official position of the inspector and the 
character of the inspection. 

(c) Meat and meat-food products as well as all other food and drug products 
of a kind forbidden entry into or forbidden to be sold, or restricted in sale in the 
country in which made or from which exported, will be refused admission. 

(d) Meat and meat-food products which have been inspected and passed 
through the customs may, if identitj^ is retained, be transported in interstate 
commerce.] 

D, Insurance Methods of Food Animals 

As the insurance of food animals is of great importance to the trade 
in food animals, as well as to the ante-mortem and post-mortem meat 
inspection, and as the experts on meat in- 
spection have frequently to cooperate in 
this matter, it seems advisable that the 
methods of insurance should be at least 
superficially treated at this time. 

The insurance of food animals may be 
carried out in many various forms. These 
are distinguished in accordance with their 
territorial bounds as local, regional, pro- 
vincial, and continental insurances. Re- 
garding the managements, there are private. 




Fig. 3. Large benzin apparatus for heating irons ( Hauptner-Ber in). The 
flame passes into a box lined with fire-clay, which accommodates two firing irons; 
they are heated in a few minutes to a red heat. Size of the apparatus, S3x22xi8cm, 
weight, 14.5 kg. 



cooperative, community, and state insurances. The participation in the 
insurance may be voluntary or compulsory ; in the same way it may be 
extended to all the food animals or only to a certain species of them. The 



Insurance Methods of Food Animals 



13 



insurance premium is, as a rule, a certain sum decided upon, and is paid 
for every animal at the place where the animals are marketed or slaught- 
ered ; and in either instance it is supposed that the animals are examined 
by an expert and founcl in condition for the acceptance of insurance. This 
is occasionally manifested by a special marking of the live animals, and 



Figs. 4 and 5. Anchor ear 
tags, according to Schumann. 
The tags, which are also sup- 
plied in white or colored tin, 
can be easily marked or 
numbered with a steel needle. 
The tags are also supplied 
wWi any kind of marking 
which may be desired. 





Fig-S 



Fig. 4 



for this purpose branding on the horns or claws (Fig. 3), or the use of ear 
tags, is considered the most appropriate (Fig. 4-7). Such marking may 
also be applied to small stock. For live hogs the pricking stamps, with 
or without stains (Fig. 8). are highly satisfactory, or tattooing pinchers, 
with which markings are applied to the ears (Fig. 9). 




Fig. 6 



Fig. 6 and 7. Improved ear 
tags, according to Hink-Drawert, 
of the firm of Hauptner-Berlin, 
with nippers for inserting the 
tags. 



The insurance company pays indemnity, as a rule, only when the 
entire carcass, or a large part of it, is declared unsuitable for human food, 
or is only conditionally passed by the veterinary inspector. Then the 
indemnity is paid, mostly to the full value of the animal, which is deter- 
mined either from the declared sales price, or after slaughter by the estab- 



14 



Chap. 1. Origin and Source of Meat Food 



lishment of the weight and the estimation of the qiiaht)' of the meat. 
Besides this many insurance companies remit the expenses which result 
from the charges for slaughter and other fees in connection with the 
latter. Other insurance companies allow only a certain proportion of the 
value of the animal as indemnity. Such insurance measures established 
by the state and supported by the state treasury, are at the present main- 
tained in the following states : 

1. In the Gi-amlduchy of Baden, the townships are authorized by the law of 
June 26, 1890, and that of rgoi, to establish insurance for the cattle stock locally or 
cooperatively, which numbered at the end of 1899, 185. In case of death /„, and 
in case of eincr.uency slaughter, j", of the value is allowed. 

2. In the kingdom of Bavaria the law of May 12, 1896, established a public 
chamber of state stock insurance which forms the central place for the volunteer 





Fig. 8 



Fig. 9 

Fig. 9. Tattooing pincers with 
two letters and impression, after 
Ilauptner-Berlin. 



Fig. 8. Pricking stamp with hollow probe-lik 
pins, according to Siedamgrotzky. 




and township stock insurances which are united into the state union. The insur- 
ance indemnifies for dead or condemned slaughtered cattle at /„ to 1", of their 
value. Such insurance included in the fall of 1901 about 1,551 township insurance 
associations, 

3. In the kingdom of Saxony, these regulations have been somewhat modified 
by the law of .-Vpril 24, 1906, wdiich went into effect January i, 1907. There was 
sinudtaneously with the introduction of the general animal and meat inspection law 
of June I, 1900, a state food animal insurance established through the law of June 
2, 1898, with the provisions for execution of July 24, 1899. All cattle and hogs 
over 3 months of age coming for slaughter, which have been a certain time in the 
territory of that state are subject to this state insurance. As indemnity for the 
animal condemned on meat inspection or those passed conditionally j^^ of the 
loss is allowed, which is obtained by deducting the actual value of the slaughtered 
animal from the market value of the dressed weight, and which is officially estab- 
lished at regular intervals for the various species. 



Conditions of Obligations 15 

4. In tlie principality of Schwarzljurg-Sonderhausen a state food animal insur- 
ance was established October i, 1900. 'J'his applies to cattle, calves, and hogs. The 
imwholesome meat and that of inferior quality are paid for at their full value. 

5. In the principalities of Reuss a state food animal insurance is maintained, 
based on the laws of March 10, J903, and March 12, 1903, with regulations of May 
'5. 1903, which went inlo effect on July i, 1903. All cattle and hogs (including 
calves J, which are slaughtered in the principality, and which are sold for the 
purpose of slaughter, must be insured. The indemnities of the condemned animals 
amount to the full value, but no settlement is made for losses less than $1.25. 

6. In the firanrlduchy of I lessen the law of April r2, 1905, contemplated a state 
food animal insurance, but lately it is doubtful whether it will go into effect. The 
insurance is compul.sory on all cattle over three months of age, which are 
slaughtered for commercial purposes, or if the animal had to be immediately 
slaughtered on account of some injury. The indemnity for carcasses condemned, 
conditionally passed, or of inferior value, is established by the full value of the 
carcass from which deductions are made of the actual value of the utilizable parts. 

It jjclongs lo the tirgent fkities oi every veterinarian connected with 
meat ins]jection to familiarize himself thoroughly regarding the insurance 
of food animals and their regulations in the territory to which his activity 
extenrls, in order that he may not commit errors, but act as an expert 
adviser to the interested parties. 

[There is no food animal insurance carried out at present in the 
United States, but inasmuch as such splendirl results have been obtained 
in the different countries of Europe by the above-described methods of 
insurance it is quite probable that in the course of time an insurance will 
be established which will ])rotect the packers anrl shippers from the great 
losses sustained from the transportation and conrlemnation of food- 
])roducing animals. | 

E. Conditions of Obligations, f Guarantee; 

Regarding the guarantee obligations against certain afifections in pur- 
chased animals, it is necessary to refer to the citizens' law book which 
prescribes the obligations of the seller in regard to some affections. 
According to Sec. 482, the seller is responsible only for certain deficiencies 
(principal deficiencies), and only then when they appear inside of a cer- 
tain time (guarantee limit). The principal defects and guarantee limits 
for trade in food animals are given below in Sec. 2 of the imperial clecree, 
March 27, 1899. 

For the sale of animals which are to be slaughtered and are destined as food 
for human beings (food animals), the following principal defects are to be con- 
sidered : 

I. Tn horses, asses, and mules: glanders (farcy) with a time guarantee of 
14 days. 

II. In cattle: tubercular affections. In cases where they are due to the exten- 
sion of the disease, half of the dressed weight is condemned or is allowed only 
conditionally for human food with a time guarantee of 14 days. 



i6 Chap. I. Origin and Source of Meat Food 

III. In sheep ; general dropsy with a time guarantee of 14 days ; under general 
dropsy is to be considered a dropsical condition of the meat, brought on by an 
internal affection or by insufficient nutrition. 

IV. In hogs : 

1. Tubercular affections as mentioned in No. II, with a time guarantee 

of 14 days. 

2. Trichinosis, with a time guarantee of 14 days. 

3. Measles (cysticercus cellulosae), with a time limit of 14 days. 

[In the purchase of live stock in the United States, no guarantee, as 
a rule, accompanies the transaction, with the possible exception of the 
custom followed in certain localities whereby the stock is bought subject 
to post-mortem inspection. This method, however, is generally applied 
only to wagonloads of hogs, and animals which have been tuberculin 
tested and have reacted to the test. Furthermore, the animals which are 
condemned or marked as inspected by state inspectors in certain stock 
yards are also sold subject to the post-mortem examination of the Fed- 
eral inspector. The practice which formerly obtained with reference to 
the resale to other packers of animals marked as suspected by a Fed- 
eral ante-mortem inspector, does not obtain under the new law, as at 
present all ante-mortem inspections are made by the Government only 
after the animals have been sold to the packer who wishes the carcasses, 
and such suspect animals are then killed separately from the regular kill.] 

F, Age of Food Animals 

In the inspection of animals and meats, strictly speaking, only the 
age of calves plays an important part, while the age of other food animals 
is of minor value. 

I. The age of calves is of importance, since in the largest part of 
Germany it is accepted by the public that veal comes on the market in a 
certain state of development when it has attained the proper maturity for 
slaughter (See B. A. I. Order 150, Regulat. 13, Sec. 27). And as in gen- 
eral this fitness for slaughter is only reached in calves after a certain age, 
it is left for the veterinary inspector to decide the age of calves in doubt- 
ful cases. For establishing the age in calves the following should be 
considered. 

(a) Calves, according to Pusch, are born with 8 milk incisors and 
the pre-molar teeth. Should the corner incisors at the time of birth be 
covered by the mucous membrane, so that their presence can be both 
seen and felt, they will break through in 2-6 days. While in the begin- 
ning the highly reddened gum lays closely on the incisors and almost 
covers them, after 7-10 days it recedes gradually, so that the shovel form 
of the incisors becomes more and more apparent. In this way, after two 
weeks the shovel form appears free in the central and first lateral incisors ; 



Age of Food Animals 17 

soon this is followed on the second lateral incisors, and finally after 3-4 
weeks on the corner teeth. At the age of one month all the crowns of the 
incisors grow entirely out of the gum, which retains its permanent pale- 
pinkish red color, and lays against the crowns of the incisors in the form 
of the characteristic pad. 

(b) The stump of the navel cord, which remains on the newly born 
calf, dries in the first 4-6 days, and separates from the abdominal wall in 
the second week of life, leaving a moist, sensitive surface, which is soon 
covered by a scab. In 2-3 weeks the cicatrization of the navel wound 
takes place, from which the scab falls off generally inside of the 4th-5th 
week. Exceptions to this rule may occur, and are frequently caused by 
inflammatory suppurative processes of the navel. 

(c) During the first week of life the lumen of the navel vein is 
found to be still wide open and filled with liquid blood. 

(d) The soft, arched pad on the sole of the claws of the newly born 
calf becomes hard in the first days after birth and wears off in proportion 
to the amount of moving about that is done by the animal. 

(e) The formation of the horns on the frontal bones appears, 
according to Gerlach, from the third week on in the form of a slight 
thickening of the skin at the place where the horns appear. By the fifth 
week the hair becomes scanty at these points, and at the end of the second 
month the horn cap makes its appearance. After three months a mov- 
able horn point may be distinguished, which in heifer calves is 2 cm. long, 
while in bull calves it is 3 cm. long. The fixed condition of the small 
horns appears in bull calves after 4 months, and in heifer calves after 5-6 
months. 

(f) The change in the color of the kidneys, described by Villain 
and Bascou for establishing the age of calves, is not admissible inasmuch 
as it is not typical. 

(g) Morot has also attempted to connect the ossification of the 
metacarpal and metatarsal bones with the establishment of the age in 
calves. In calves up to 5-6 weeks of age the longitudinal halves of these 
bones separate if they are cut or strongly boiled. The surfaces of separa- 
tion are rectilinear, but uneven and wrinkled. Each half of the bone 
shows its special marrow cavity. 

In deciding whether the calf is old enough for slaughter the above- 
mentioned signs to determine the ages of calves may be supplemented by 
considering the consistency of the meat and fat, which in doubtful cases is 
the only guide for the inspector. 

Regarding the peculiarities of mature veal, see Chap. II ; the signs of 
immaturity are given in Chap. VII, i. 

Although the age of the other animals, as already mentioned, is of 
minor importance in meat inspection, the following tabulated exhibit 
3 



Chap. I. Origin and Source of Meat Food 









































































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20 Chap. I. Origin and Source of Meat Food 

should furnish some information in regard to the age of food animals 
as determined by the teeth (Ellenberger and Baum, Handbuch der 
Anatomie). 

As the appearance and change of the teeth are influenced in our domesticated 
animals by breed, precocity and care, it is evident that in determining the age in 
doubtful cases special works on animal breeding and anatomy should be consulted. 

It is a well-known fact to all veterinarians that with the aid of the rings on 
the horns of the cow, which develop from the influence of pregnancy, an inspector 
may be able to determine the age up to a certain point. Two, added to the 
number of rings present on horns of the cow, will generally give her age. This 
applies to cases in which pregnancy appeared regularly. Irregular distances 
between the rings are indications of irregular intervals between pregnancies. 

For determining the age of slaughtered cattle, certain points of ossification, and 
especially the cartilaginous extensions of the first 4-5 spines of the dorsal vertebrse, 
may be advantageously utilized. On the split extensions of the vertebral spines the 
following changes are manifested with the advancement of age : 

1 year, cartilaginous extension entirely cartilaginous ; 

2 years, cartilaginous extension interwoven with small single bone centers ; 

3 years, cartilaginous extension diffused with bony islands ; 

4 years, cartilaginous extension more so ; 

5 years, the bon}^ structure exceeds the cartilage ; 

6 years, the cartilaginous extension almost entirely ossified ; however, the car- 

tilaginous border can be plainly distinguished between the bony process and 
the cartilaginous extension; 

7 years, the cartilaginous border zone still plainly visible ; 

8 years, the cartilaginous border zone only slightly perceptible ; 

9 years, all cartilage disappeared. 

The ossified cartilaginous extension is, however, of a lighter color and more 
compact than the bony substance of the vertebra proper, but sometimes there forms 
in the bony substance of the former cartilaginous border a narrow red zone. If, 
therefore, the first spinal extensions in their upper third are vmiformly compact, 
the cow is at least 10 years old. If the age exceeds 12 years, the spinal extensions 
gradually change into a grayish-yellow compact bony substance. 

G, Slaughtering of Animals 

The commercial slaughter of animals begins with the killing, which 
in Germany is generally carried out by bleeding. The latter must be done 
as thoroughly as possible, since the contents of the blood in the meat 
influences its keeping qualities. The most thorough bleeding is accom- 
plished when the heart and respiratory functions remain in action as long 
as possible. As both these functions depend principally on the intactnesb 
of the medulla oblongata with the respiratory, cardiac and vaso-motor 
centers, those methods of killing will prove the most satisfactory in which 
the medulla oblongata is not injured. From a humanitarian standpoint 
the withdrawal of blood should always be preceded by stunning the ani- 
mals, which, as a matter of fact, is carried out in almost all cases with 
the exception of those slaughtered in accordance with the Je^yish rite. 



Slaughtering of Animals 21 

As a result of the stunning the excessive struggling of the animals is pre- 
vented, and in consequence the dangers for the butchers from such strug- 
gling are also averted. 

The following killing methods are distinguished as a result of the 
different methods of stunning : 

1, Killing Methods with Stunning 

(a) The blow on the head (forehead blow) is carried out with a 
slaughter ax. heavy wooden club, or hammer. It may be employed on all 
food animals, and causes, when proficiently applied, an immediate insensi- 
bility of the animal. 

The action of the blow on the head depends on the position of the brain in the 
vaiious animals and its greater or lesser protection by the cranium. In the horse, 
the conditions for stunning with the blow on the head are the most favorable, as 
the brain is practically only covered by the comparatively thin bone plates formed 
by the frontal and parietal bones. Therefore, a blow directed at this point will act 
directly on the brain. Similar conditions obtain in sheep and goats; in these ani- 
mals, however, it should be remembered that the strong roots of the horn processes 
of the temporal bone strengthen considerably the cranial roof, and besides the 
efltect of the blow in sheep is also diminished by the wooly covering. The brain 
in these animals is more easily reached from the base of the head than from the 
forehead. In cattle, as it is well known, the frontal bone also forms the entire brain 
covering, which, on account of the strong development of the frontal sinuses, is 
divided into a lateral and median lamella. The effect of the blow is broken by the 
frontal sinuses, and the farther the blow strikes from the middle point, the less 
effective it will prove. The proper point to strike is located where the diagonals 
from the base of the horns to the opposite orbital arches cross. 

These anatomical peculiarities do not interfere in calves, as the undeveloped 
soft skull does not resist the blow to any marked degree. While the roof of the 
cranium in hogs is similarly constructed to that in 
cattle, due to the prominent development of the 
frontal sinuses, yet these anatomical relations play 
no special part, as the majority of hogs are slaught- 
ered at a young age, when the roof of the cranium 
is not very compact. Only in races of hogs with a 
strongly protruding skull and retreating face is the 
bony development of the skull very marked, and in 
these frequently the front part of the head is cov- 
ered with thick, wooly hair, which considerably 
diminishes the effect of the blow. 

. Fig. 10. Head of bull with 

(b) The frontal blow with a slaughter ax slaughter mask attached. 

or bolt hammer is executed by the use of a 

short ax, to which is fastened a round, chisel-shaped bolt, and this is driven 
into the brain. The application of this apparatus, which in general is not 
to be recommended, requires skill in sure hitting and much strength. 

(c) The frontal blow with the application of the so-called slaughter 
mask. The construction of this apparatus can be seen in Fig. 10, and is 
employed exclusively on cattle. 




22 



Chap. I. Origin and Source of Meat Food 



The bolt is driven into the brain, causing the animal to collapse immediately. 
Rissling prefers a strong, hollow cylinder to the solid bolt. Other slight changes 
in the mask have been undertaken occasionally. After the removal of the mask, as 
a rule a small piece of cane is introduced in the opening of the cranium in order 
to destroy further the posterior portion of the brain. This is also usually carried out 
in the use of the previously described apparatus, which, however, is absolutely 





Fig. II. Vertical section 
through Kleinschundt's 
spring-bolt apparatus : a, iron 
covering ; b, bolt ; c, groove; 
d, spring ; e, head piece. 



Fig. 12. Vertical section through a bolt 
apparatus, according to Kogler : a, bolt, 
b, groove ; c, screw for the bolt; d, iron 
middle cylinder ; e, eye for opening the 
wooden handle. 






unnecessary when the bolt is driven at the right place into the brain. While the 
convulsive struggling which results from the introduction of the small piece of cane 
into the brain has a repulsive effect, there is total absence of consciousness. The 
statement of Dembo, in which he expressed his doubt regarding the reliability of 
the slaughter mask, may be considered as disproved through the statistics compiled 
by Siedamgrotzky. 

(d) The blow on the forehead with 
the spring-bolt apparatus designed by 
Kleinschmidt, or with the bolt apparatus 

'**,^s of Kogler, is used for the stunning of 
hogs and sheep (Fig. ii and Fig. 12). 

(e) Killing of food animals with bul- 
let-shooting apparatus. The oldest instru- 
ment belonging to this class was origi- 
nated by Siegmund. A similar apparatus 
without the leather mask has been placed 
on the market for several years by va- 
rious firms according to Staehl's patent 
(Fig. 13). Lately, similar instruments 

have been made for use on hogs and small stock. 

(f) Shooting with the latest shooting-bolt apparatus designed by 
Flessa, Liebe, Schrader, and further with Behr's bolt pistol, etc., which, b\^ 




Fig. I J. Ih-ad of bull with 
shooting apparatus attached, ac- 
cording to Staehl-Stoff. 



Slaughtering- of Animals 



23 



the pressure of the gases from the powder of an inflammable shell, drives 
a bolt into the brain in a similar way as the blow-bolt apparatus (Fig. 14). 
Flessa's bolt-shooting apparatus is very simple, inasmuch as the discharge 
occurs only on the head of the animal to be killed through the ejection of 




Fig. 14. Behr's bolt pistol in section (Behr's 
Industrial Company). 



the bolt which extends for about i cm., whereby the other sharpened. end 
of the bolt causes an explosion of the strongly active copper cap. On 
account of the slight danger from the bolt-shooting apparatus, they should 
be preferred to the bullet-shooting apparatuses. 




Fig. 16 



Fig. 15 and 16. Bolt-shooting apparatus by abattoir director Flessa. 
Outside view and longitudinal section (Hauptner-Berlin). 

(g) The blow on the base of the head is carried out with an ax, 
cleaver, club, or with the end of a heavy hammer. The stunning results 
from the contusion of the brain. This method is the simplest for large- 
horned or aged sheep and goats. 



24 Chap. I. Origin and Source of Meat Food 



2, Slaughtering Method without Stunning 

(a) In pithing, a strong knife is stuck between the atlas and occipital bone 
and the medulla oblongata is thereby severed or injured. The animals collapse 
immediately. They are, however, not stunned but only helpless, inasmuch as con- 
scious movement is arrested. Unconsciousness only takes place when, after subse- 
quent bleeding, the resulting cerebral anemia has reached a certain degree. The 
bleeding of such "pithed" animals is sometimes unsatisfactory, due to the injury 
of the vasomotor centers, also of the heart and respiratory centers in the medulla 
oblongata. The pithing, therefore, should be discarded from a humanitarian as 
well as from a practical standpoint. 

The above-mentioned "blow on the base of the head" has the disadvantages of 
pithing only when tlie blow has not been sufficiently strong to produce a contusion 
of the lirain. 

(b) "Schachten" (from the Hebrew verb "schachat," to draw; to 
draw the knife to and from), is the oklest slaughtering- method, and is 
appHed by the Jews and Mohammedans on cattle and small stock. 

For this purpose the animals are secured and thrown, and then follows the cut- 
ling of the throat with a very sharp knife with a wide blade. The latter is per- 
furmed l)y an especially appointed member of that faith. Death of (he animals 
occurs through the slow loss of blood from the large vessels of the neck. The 
throwing and securing of large and strong cattle are frequently associated with 
difficulties and dangers for the butchers, and accompanied generally by considerable 
cruelty to the animal. Since the middle of the last century much argument has 
been carried on regarding the advantages and disadvantages of the Jewish method 
of slaughter from a humanitarian, physiological, and hygienic standpoint, and also 
as to its authority from a religious consideration, which will not be further dis- 
cussed here. It should only be mentioned that shectering, without previously stun- 
ning the animal, was prohibited in the Kingdom of Saxony and in Switzerland, a 
regulation which, from tlie luunanitarian standpoint, should receive the fullest 
approval. Further information may be obtained from the extensive works and 
publications on this subject. 

For diminishing the cruelty in throwing animals, various apparatuses have 
been constructed, which, however, are only slightly improving the rcpulsiveness of 
the Jewish method. The same can be said in relation to the equipment now in use 
for the stretching of the neck and head before shectering by the so-called head- 
holder. 

It should also be mentioned that experiments have been made to kill animals 
with electricity. (Bockelmann.) 

To improve on the securing of hogs for stunning Renger constructed a slaught- 
ering machine, which can be utilized to only a very limited extent. 

For acquiring steadiness in taking aim on the part of the butcher apprentices, 
various apparatuses have been constructed. They are even supplied with an indi- 
cator registering the force of the blow, and are maintained by the butchers' asso- 
ciations of larger cities. On these machines the apprentices receive their instruction 
and practice in striking. 



Slaughtering of Animals 



3. Bleeding 

Extraction of the blood is accomphshed in large stock and hogs by 
cutting the blood vessels at the entrance of the thoracic cavity ; in small 
stock by sticking in the neck or cutting the throat. The latter is also some- 
times employed in cattle, especially when slaughtering them in accordance 
with the Jewish rite (Schachten). As the preserving qualities of meat 
depend considerably on thorough bleeding this should be as complete as 
possible. It depends on the following conditions : 

(a) The health of the animal considerably influences thorough bleeding as all 
severe affections weaken the vitality, which involves the action of the heart, respira- 
U0h, and muscles, thus influencing the driving out of the blood. Especially is bleed- 
ing retarded in febrile conditions of food animals, also in cases of severe indiges- 
tion, acute disturbances of the portal circulation, and severe lung and heart affec- 
tions. As a rule animals so affected bleed out very poorly. 

(h) Sufficient rest of the animals before slaughter is also essential to assure 
a thorough bleeding. Animals that are excited or are thoroughly tired out usually 
bleed out insufficiently. 

(c) Strong and long continued respiratory and heart action, as well as ener- 
getic convulsions of the body muscles favor thorough bleeding for reasons that 
must appear self-explanatory. As these functions are regulated by the central ner- 
vous system and especially by the medulla oblongata the thorough bleeding depends 
to no small degree upon the — 

((1) Slaughtering and stunning method, which favorably influences bleeding 
when the medulla oblongata remains intact. 

(e) The performance of .sticking or cutting considerably promotes or retards 
the bleeding. When thoracic bleeding is performed the heart must not be injured, 
and also bleeding into the thoracic cavity must be prevented T over-sticking), as 
compression of the heart and lungs takes place through the quick accumulation of 
blood in the chest cavity. 

The anemic state of the arteries and large and medium vein trunks is 
not the only indication of thorough bleeding, but what may be considered 
as more important is a certain dryness of the parenchymatous organs and 
especially of the muscles. Only a few drops of blood can be obtained on 
pressure of the cut surfaces and only in the smallest veins can there be 
found traces of blood. 

The quantity of blood, which averages A of the body weight, 
naturally cannot be totally abstracted; however, the larger portion of it 
may be withdrawn. The quantity of the blood depends on the sex, size, 
and nutritive state, and on the above-mentioned conditions, which may 
influence the bleeding of the slaughtered animals. The quantity of the 
withdrawn blood amounts in cattle to 15-25 liters; in horses, 20-30; in 
hogs, 2-3; in small stock, i>4 liters. In hogs the quantity of blrjod is 
considerably diminished with the increase of fat on the animal. 



26 Chap. I. Origin and Source of Meat F'ood 

Various experiments have been made regarding the quantity of blood drawn 
from slaughtered animals. Heissler found the quantity of blood from horses to be 
3.93-9 per cent, of their body weights; in cows, 4.02-5.75 per cent.; in calves, 
4.40-6.65 per cent.; in sheep, 4.37-7-56 per cent.; in hogs, 1.45-5.74 per cent. 
According to Goltz the quantity of blood amounted in cattle to 3.1-3.3 per cent, of 
the body weight; in calves, 4.9-5 per cent; in sheep, 4.1-4.3 per cent. At the same 
time Goltz established that the method of killing — whether the animal was slaught- 
ered in accordance with the Jewish rite or whether the withdrawal of blood is pre- 
ceded by stunning — has no influence on the quantity of blood flowing from the 
animal. The same results were obtained by Falk, who also believes that cows pos- 
sess a larger quantity of blood than heifers, or even bulls and steers. Fjelstrup 
letermined the quantity of blood by washing out the blood vessels with salt water 
infusions, according to a special formula. 

The blood from animals slaughtered by cutting the throat is as a rule polluted 
with the vomited contents of the stomach, and therefore cannot be utilized for 
human food. (B. A. I. Order 150, Regul. 13; Sec. i.) 

4, Further Dressing of Carcasses 

Regarding the further course of commercial slaughter the following- 
brief notations may contain some information. [The extent of the dres.s- 
ing and cutting with consideration for the intended post-mortem inspec- 
tion is established by B. A. I. Order 150, Regulation 12, Sec. 1-3.] 

Cattle and horses are partly skinned while on the floor. This is then followed 
by the removal of the feet in the carpal and tarsal joints, and of the head. (At 
this time the horns of cattle are chopped of¥ in order to remain on the skin). The 
abdomen is cut for a short distance along the median line for the removal of the 
connected masses of fat of the mesentery. After the penis, scrotum, or udder is 
cut ofif, the breastbone and the pelvis sawed, the latter in the symphysis, the ani- 
mal is hoisted with the aid of a beam which is inserted through an opening made 
between the tendo-Achilles and the metatarsus bone, or by hooks which are inserted 
into the same openings. The carcass is then further skinned and finally eviscerated, 
leaving only the kidneys. In the process of evisceration (gutting) the uterus and 
bladder are first removed, followed by the intestines and mesentery; then the stom- 
ach (or stomachs; 1, with the adherent spleen, then the liver and finally the heart, 
lungs, and trachea. In some places the liver and parts of the diaphragm are 
removed together with the thoracic viscera (in U. S.). From the head the brain 
is removed and the tongue is separated from the connection with the lower jaw, in 
such a way that the buccal and laryngeal cavities become entirely exposed. With 
hogs, which are subjected to so-called scalding in water at 6o°-7o° C, the hair and 
epidermis are loosened, which may then be removed by scraping. After washing 
and hanging by the flexor pedis tendons of the hind legs, the evisceration takes 
place. Only the kidneys are left in place, provided they do not come out with the 
removal of the retroperitoneal layer of fat (leaf lard). Stomach and intestines 
remain in their natural connection; also the liver, with the thoracic- viscera 
together with the trachea, esophagus, and tongue. In France the bristles of the hog 
are removed by singeing. [Singeing is followed in U. S. for certain export hogs]. 
At present this custom appears to be declining, and is gradually being replaced by 
scalding. As singeing makes the examination of the skin difficult, it should be con- 
sidered in Germany in accordance with the meat inspection regulation as a pro- 
cedure to which the hogs should not be subjected without further consideration. 



Slaughtering of Animals 27 

Small stock are skinned after the removal of the feet, partly while lying on 3 
rack and partly when hung up. They are then eviscerated in the same manner as 
hogs ; the kidneys, sometimes the liver and spleen, as well as the thoracic viscera 
being left in place. The inflation of carcasses of calves and sheep by blowing air 
into the subcutis with the njouth, bellows, or air-pump, is not so frequently carried 
out at present as formerly, and this also can be said regarding the inflation of the 
lungs with air. Meat, which shows changes through the blowing, must be declared 
as unfit for human consumption. Frequently calves are left with their hides on for 
reasons of cleanliness in transportation. As a rule, cattle and hogs are split into 
halves through their vertebral columns immediately after slaughter, while small 
stock are left intact for the time being. Until the carcasses are cooled no further 
cutting takes place. At this time each side of beef is transversely cut and divided 
into a fore and hind quarter, by which procedure the last 3 or 4 ribs are, as a rule, 
cut off with the hind quarter. The further cutting of the dressed meat depend.s 
on the commercial customs^ which vary not only in accordance with the various 
species of animals, but also with different countries and localities. For further par- 
ticulars on this subject, as well as the commercial designation of the various parts 
of the dressed carcass, see page 31. 

In relation to the further manipulations in the slaughter of animals for Jews 
it should be briefly mentioned that a certain examination of food animals is made 
as to their health. In cattle the "Schachter," after the abdomen has been opened, 
and before the breastbone has been divided, places his arms into the thoracic cavity 
through an opening in the diaphragm and explores the pleura for adhesions, etc. 
.A.fter the removal of the interna! organs from the body their further examination is 
made principally with the eye, but whether the carcass should be considered as pure 
and proper food for Israelites (kosher), depends especially upon the palpation of 
the lungs for abnormalities. Besides there are also certain lesions of the other vis- 
cera considered. In case the slaughtered animal cannot be passed for food in accord- 
ance with the ritual requirements, it is declared as unclean (trepha). The Kosher 
meat is marked for the benefit of the consumers with the Hebrew lettering ^1*^2 
and frequently also it is sealed or stamped with the date of the slaughter. As certain 
large blood vessels, certain strips of fat, tendonous parts, etc., should not be con- 
sumed, these parts are removed by the "Schachter," which are designated as "Trie- 
bern" and "Porschen" of the meat. As this would result in considerable cutting 
if applied to the hind quarters, and consequently would diminish the value of the 
meat, they are not "porsched," and are, therefore, not eaten by religious Jews. 
Further particulars of the Jewish ritual slaughter can be found in Goltz's History 
of Meat Food. 

5, Emergency Slaughter 

The form of slaughtering which is everywhere designated as emer- 
gency slaughter deserves special mention, and, furthermore, requires par- 
ticular attention from the standpoint of sanitary police. 

The emergency slaughter involves those cases of injured and sick ani- 
mals where the life appears to be more or less threatened, and in order to 
endeavor to save the meat for human food they are hastily slaughtered. 
While there are various diseases which occasion an emergency slaughter, 
yet they may not affect the meat so as to render it unwholesome. Others 
again are of a doubtful character and have endangered the life and health 



28 Chap. I. Origin and Source of Meat Food 

of numerous people. This was proven in a long series of epidemics 
which resulted from meat poisoning, and Bollinger rightly claims that at 
least I of these outbreaks were in connection with emergency slaughter. 

The principal causes for emergency slaughter in cattle, as shown by 
experience and also by the tabulated statistics of A. Maier, are affections 
of the digestive and sexual organs, and the infectious diseases. In small 
stock and hogs the latter diseases play the most important part, while in 
hogs, swine erysipelas is frequently the cause for emergency slaughter. 

According to Lydtin's statistics meat produced by emergency 
slaughter involves a danger which, when compared with the meat obtained 
by commercial killing, is 80 times greater in cattle, 12 times in calves, 100 
times in sheep, 90 times in goats, 211 times in hogs, and 3 times in horses. 

Although such statistics sufficiently indicate the sanitary importance 
of emergency slaughter in general, this is further increased when it is con- 
sidered that the emergency killings, as Ostertag rightly remarks, "include 
not always the typical afifections, but in many instances diseases of 
unknown origin (cryptogenetic sepsis)." For these reasons the judging 
of animals slaughtered in emergency is in many cases connected with 
difficulties, even for the scientifically trained veterinary inspector, which 
frequently proves a hard test of his knowledge and conscientiousness. 
Owing to the dangers of emergency slaughter from 3^ sanitary standpoint, 
all efforts for years were directed toward the subjection of these animals 
under all conditions to a veterinary inspection. It is to be regretted that 
the imperial meat-inspection law shows a flaw on this important point, 
which could easily prove serious. In accordance with this law the inspec- 
tion may be omitted if the animals are slaughtered for home consumption, 
and it frequently happens that many instances of emergency slaughter are 
carried out on just such occasions. In the above-mentioned law, the limita- 
tion is made that inspection may be omitted only in those animals which 
before or after slaughter show no signs of disease that would render the 
meat unwholesome. This regulation has, however, only a limited value, 
as in some cases an important disease might not show striking appear- 
ances in the eyes of a layman ; then again unconscientious stock owners 
may either disrespect the requirements of the law altogether, or in case 
they should be caught they could assert that the symptoms of disease 
manifested by the animals were not such as to warrant the opinion that the 
meat in consequence was unfit for consumption. And while the animals 
slaughtered for home consumption, and therefore uninspected, cannot be 
commercially utilized, yet the probable affections should be considered 
which might result from partaking of infected meat by the family and 
servants. Besides it is a well-known fact that frequently the meat of 
home-slaughtered animals is openly or indirectly brought to market, or is 
worked up for this purpose. 



Slaughtering of Animals 29 

For these reasons it would be very desirable if the governments of the 
allied states should avail themselves of the authority offered them by the 
law, and should provide compulsory inspections even for home slaughter- 
ing, as is the case at present in the Kingdom of Saxony and other states. 

By cold slaughtering is understood in butchers' circles those fraudulent manipu- 
lations, which aim to utilize carcasses of dead unslaughtered animals, as if they had 
been slaughtered, by performing the sticking or cutting on post-mortem. The absence 
of bloody infiltration of the edges of the wound and other manifestations make the 
detection easy for the expert. 

6, Official Regulations Concerning Slaughter 

For manifold reasons it would be desirable to have the appendix of the imperial 
meat-inspection law contain uniform regulations for the slaughter of animals. At 
present the following decrees are in effect : 

. In Prussia the ministerial decrees of December 16, 1889, and March 25, 1900, 

contain detailed specifications regarding the procedure in the slaughter of animals. 

. They also contain the corresponding police regulations which exist in the various 

parts of the country. In the Government District Koblentz pithing is prohibited by 

the police regulations of September 23, 1891. 

In Bavaria the procedure of the slaughtering of food animals was regulated by 
the order of the State Ministry of the Interior, February 19, 1890. 

In Saxony the decree of the Ministry of the Interior of March 21, 1892, rela- 
tive to the stunning of food animals prescribes that in the slaughter of all animals 
with the exception of fowls, stunning must precede bleeding. 

By the order of May 23, 1891, in the duchy of Saxony-Meiningen only the 
"Schachten" is exempted from the decree which prescribes that stunning must pre- 
cede bleeding. 

The following regulations affect the "Schachten," in accordance with the Jew- 
ish rite : 

In Prussia an order of the Minister of the Interior, Religion and Education, of 
January 14, 1889, forbids all unnecessary cruelty to animals, and prescribes special 
regulations for a careful throwing of the animals and safe securing of the head, etc. 

In Bavaria a similar decree on this subject was issued by the State Ministry of 
the Interior, July 12, 1889. 

In the Kingdom of Saxony the Schachten is prohibited in accordance with the 
above decree for that state, if it is not preceded by stunning. 

In Baden the regulations regarding the Jewish method of slaughter are con- 
tained in the Ministerial decree of March 29, 1888. 

In Meiningen a proclamation of May 29, 1891, prescribes the avoidance of 
unnecessary cruelties to animals in shectering, based upon the above-mentioned 
decree of Prussia. 

In Switzerland the prohibition of Schachten was accepted by the state constitu- 
tion after submitting the question to general vote, which resulted 187,000 against 
and 112,000 for the Schachten, and 11V2 against and Joy2 for in the votes by cantons. 

[The slaughtering methods employed for cattle in the United States 
are preceded, with the exception of those selected for Hebrew consump- 
tion, by stunning which is carried out with a long-handled hammer. While 
there is no doubt that the stunning: of the animals with the various above- 



30 Chap. I. Origin and Source of Meat Food 

described apparatuses has some advantages, yet such methods could not 
be satisfactorily carried out in the large slaughtering centers of this 
country, as a large percentage of the food animals are range cattle which 
have never been accustomed to being handled, and therefore the attach- 
ment of an apparatus to them or even approaching them for that purpose 
would be not only impracticable, but an impossibility in most cases. 
Besides the construction of the killing pens and the skill of the men 
employed for this particular work of "knocking," render this method per- 
fectly satisfactory and without any unnecessary cruelty as it occurs only 
exceptionally that the animal is not completely stunned with a single, well- 
directed blow.] 

H, Utilization of Food Animals 

As the utilization of all parts of a slaughtered animal which serves as 
human food is of the best advantage, it is, therefore, aimed to effect this 
utilization to the greatest extent possible. All other parts which are not 
suitable for food are designated as offal. While in ordinary usage most 
of the edible parts of food animals are erroneously included in the word 
meat, yet in commerce and trade the term meat, in a narrow sense, includes 
only the skeletal muscles with all of the organically connected parts 
(bones, fat, tendons, blood vessels, nerves, lymph glands, etc.), while the 
fat, the blood, and all viscera utilizable for human food are not consid- 
ered. All these portions which partly are marketed in their fresh state, 
partly again worked up, naturally possess great extremes of value. 

1. Meat in a Narrow Sense 

The principal value of food animals lies in the meat proper,* namely 
in the striated or skeletal muscles, which, in accordance with their loca- 
tion and their coarse anatomical structure, possess different values as 
human food. In this valuation the actual nutritive worth of the meat is 
generally not considered (Chap. II), but more depends on its usefulness 
and flavor. The latter is principally based upon the firmness and tender 
character of the muscle fibers, the arrangement and contents of the con- 
nective tissue, the deficiency or richness of fat, and the amount of the 
extractive matter on which depends the taste of the meat. As these rela- 
tions vary considerably in the different regions of the animal body, the 
sale value of the meat of certain parts varies likewise. This is also influ- 
enced, however, by fondness for certain cuts in different parts of the 
country. Corresponding with these conditions various meat qualities are 



'^Regarding the morphology and chemistry of meat, also the peculiarities of the 
meat of various food animals, see Chap. II. 



Utilization of Food Animals 



31 



distinguished in all animals, and the regional limits, valuations, and desig- 
nations differ considerably in the various countries and territories. 

The following attempted division of the quality limitation of meat of food ani- 
mals is only considered for the principal portions, as they are distinguished by the 
trade all over Germany, and as they are comprehended regarding their valuations. 

[Meat Cuts in United States. — In the 
United States the different meat cuts 
from the various food animals are sold 
in accordance with a certain classifica- 
tion, and a considerable variation exists 
in the market value of the meat from the 
different parts of the animal. But inas- 
much as there is no distinct ratio as to 
the market value of these various meat 
cuts, it will be only necessary to name 
them, indicating also their location on 
the carcass in the accompanying illus- 
trations :] 

(a) Beef (Fig. 17) 

First Quality : Tenderloin 
(muse, iliopsoas, invisible on the 
cut), sirloin (English roast), 
rump. 

Second Quality : Double round 
(the median part of the round is 
not visible on the cut), thick 
flank, best ribs, chuck (only part 
of the same). 

Third Quality : Shoul- 
der, brisket (partly cov- 
ered b}^ the shoulder), 
chuck, plate, neck. 

Fourth Quality : Short 
ribs, flank, shank, shin, 
head, and tail. 

[In the United States 
the usual beef cuts are : 
a Shank, b round, c 
rump, d sirloin, e por- 
terhouse, / rib, o flank, 
m plate, h chuck, / bris- 
ket, g shoulder, i neck, 
K snanK.J pjg ^y gj^j^ ^^ ^^^^ showing the commercial cuts 




32 



Chap. I. Origin arid Source of Meat Food 



(b) Veal (Fig. i8) 

First Quality: Leg (cutlet), loin roast, chops. 

Second Quality: Shoulder, chuck, breast (partly covered by the 
shoulder). 

Third Quality : Neck, flank, shank, shin. 
Fourth Quality : Head and feet. 



Fig. 18 




Fig 20' 




Fig. 18. Side of veal showing the commer- 
cial cuts. 

Fig. 19. Side of mutton showing the com- 
mercial cuts. 

Fig. 20. Side of hog showing the commer- 
cial cuts. 

[In the United States the veal cuts are: b Leg, d loin, c flank,. 
e breast, g shoulder, i neck.] 

(c) Mutton (Fig. 19) 

First Quality : Leg, loin. 

Second Quality : Shoulder. 

Third Quality : Ribs, partly covered by shoulder ; breast, flank, neck. 

Fourth Quality: Head. 



Utilization of Food Animals 33 

[In the United States the cuts are: a Leg, b loin, c back and rib, 
d breast, / shoulder, h neck.] 

j(d) Pork (Fig. 20) 

First Quality: Leg (ham), loin (chops, cutlet, roast). 

Second Quality: Neck-piece, shoulder (shoulder ham). 

Third Quality : Short ribs, belly, shanks. 

Fourth Quality: Head with jowl (cheek), snout, feet. 

[In the United States the cuts are : c Ham d loin, e belly, g shoulder, 
i head.] 

In the horse and dog there are, as a rule, no special classes of meat 
dis^nguished; nevertheless, in horses certain parts (tenderloin and 
tongue) command a higher price than others. 

The tongue of all animals and the udder of cattle are sold as meat. 
When meat is not sold in a raw or pickled state, with or without the 
bones, etc., it is worked up for the various meat products. (See Chap. III.) 

2, Fat 

The fat which is obtained from food animals in coherent masses is 
utilized for food purposes either in a raw or rendered state. The term 
bacon is applied to the deposition of fat in hogs with or without the skin, 
which lies between the skin and the muscular meat, especially on the back 
and on the side of the body ; it may also be intermixed with thin muscular 
layers. In commerce, especially in North America, the following variet- 
ies of bacon are distinguished, which, however, in accordance with the 
specific definition above, should not be considered from the meat inspec- 
tion standpoint, with the exception of fatbacks, as bacon, but they are to 
be treated in accordance with the disposition of pork meat (See Chaps. IV 
and V). 

1. Short-clear, a side of the hog between the hind shank and the 
anterior half of the shoulder, from which the bones have been removed. 

2. Long-clear, that boneless half of a hog which lies between the 
hind shank and the head, from which the lean portion of the loin has 
been cut out. 

3. Rib belly, the side of a hog consisting of the hind and lower 
ribs, which generally are not removed, and of the corresponding lower 
portion of the belly. 

4. Short fat-backs, as the fat which lies on the back and side of the 
body over the larger muscles and over the ribs ; they are generally cut 
into elongated quadrangular pieces and are very frequently intermixed 
with the muscular layers. 

5. Long fat-backs are short fat-backs, to which the fat lying on the 
side of the neck is added. 

4 



34 Chap. I. Origin and Source of Meat Food 

Those pieces of fat and trimmings which are not suitable for sale in 
the shop are melted for lard, or are conveyed to soap, grease, and other 
factories, where they find various technical utilization. 

Chapter III contains further information on this subject. 

3, Blood 

It is principally the blood of hogs that is worked up for sausage, 
while the blood from other animals is used for this purpose only in rare 



Albumen was formerly made from blood offal, but its production is now dimin- 
ishing. Recently efforts have been directed toward utilizing the dried and ground 
blood for fertilizing and cattle food purposes, since the high nitrogenous contents of 
the pulverized blood, 12-18 per cent, makes it very adaptable. Small concerns usually 
dispose of the unused blood with the manure and other offal. 

4, Viscera 

The heart, liver, lungs, kidneys, spleen, brain, and thymus gland of 
calves (sweetbread) are sold in their fresh state or they are worked up for 
sausage or other meat products. 

The stomach of hogs is used for sausage coverings, the stomachs of 
cattle are sold after scalding and removal of the epithelium, as the 
so-called tripe, or are utilized to a limited extent in ordinary kinds of 
sausage. Stomach and intestinal canal of calves are consumed as "calf- 
ruffle." The stomachs of sheep are used either for manufacturing 
sausage or for food purposes. From the stomach of calves is also 
obtained the rennet ferment (for manufacturing cheese). The intestinal 
canals of cattle and hogs serve as sausage coverings after they have been 
scraped and thoroughly cleaned. In a similar way, but to a limited 
extent, the small intestines of sheep are employed ; otherwise they are 
utilized for the manufacture of violin strings. The serous membrane of 
the csecum of cattle is used as the so-called "goldbeater skins." The 
bladders of cattle and hogs are utilized for sausage coverings 

It should be remarked in passing that recently from certain organs, 
especially the thyroids, ovaries, as well as testicles, bone-marrow and 
adrenal capsules, therapeutic remedies are prepared, which are quite 
extensively employed in human medicine. 

5, Offal 

The most important constituent of food animals belonging in this 
class is the skin^ which, with the exception of the hog skin, is worked up 
into leather. 

The latter serves only for this purpose in exceptional cases (boar, 
old hogs), as it is otherwise sold with the meat, or remains on the bacon, 
or is mixed in the filling of various kinds of sausage. The same is done 



Utilization of Food Animals 35 

with the skin of the heads of calves, arid exceptionally with the skin of 
the heads of young cattle. Besides, the skin of the head of cattle, espe- 
cially the lips and the muzzle, as well as the ears, is worked up for food. 
The utilization of cattle and calf skin for sausage, with the exception of 
the parts above mentioned, is only permitted under declaration. From 
the bones, which are not sold with the meat, and which, in well- 
fattened cattle amount to 15. i to 15.4 per cent, of the dressfed weight, the 
marrow is extracted for various purposes, but that from the lower bones 
of the legs is especially worked up for Neat's foot oil. Otherwise the 
offal bones are converted into glue and bone meal in factories, while the 
long bones are also used for industrial purposes (turnings or coverings) . 
The same applies to the horns of cattle. Tendonous and cartilaginous 
tissues are utilized in glue factories. 

Brushes are made from the better hog bristles, while the poorer 
qualities are used for minor purposes. Hoofs and claws, as well as 
inferior horns, are worked into fertilizer. 

The genital organs serve as dog food, and other appropriate offal is 
also beneficially used for this purpose. 

The occasionally observed abusive utilization of the sexual organs, 
especially the testicle and uterus for food purposes, could be remedied 
by the simplest form of condemning these parts during meat inspection. 
However, the present meat-inspection regulations give no authority for 
such action. 

The bile, which is collected at some places, is used in the cleaning 
of clothes, and also for the manufacture of soap. 

The contents of the stomachs of ruminants and hogs are also used 
mixed with blood or molasses, for the preparation of animal food. 



IL Morphology and Chemistry of the 

Principal Tissues and Organs 

of Food Animals 

The morphology and chemical properties of meat and its constituents 
should be mentioned here only to the extent that it is of importance in the 
examination of meat and in determining its significance as human food. 

1, Meat Proper and Its Constituents 

A- Muscles 

Of the three kinds of muscles — the striated, non-striated, and heart 
muscle — only the first, which is bought and consumed as meat proper or 
muscle meat;, comes under consideration here. There is also included 
the tissues which are in natural connection with the muscle proper (fat, 
connective, elastic, nerve, bone tissues), and organs (blood and lymph 
vessels, lymph glands, etc.). According to Friedel the "meat" purchased 
at the butcher shop contains an average of 83 per cent, meat, 8.4 per cent, 
bone, 8.6 per cent. fat. The quantitative proportion between the striated 
muscle and the other constituents of the body varies between 30 and 50 
per cent, of the live weight, and in medium fat animals, this is higher 
than in lean or very fat ones. 

The structure of the muscle consists of fibrous tissue, which pos- 
sesses a peculiar luster and a semi-solid consistence. The firmness of 
the fiber is different in the various animals, and has an influence on the 
tastefulness of the meat. The tenderness or toughness, however, does 
not entirely depend on this^, but is more intimately connected with the 
race, age, nutritive condition of the animal, and the amount of con- 
nective tissue present. Relative to the latter, the experiments of K. B. 
Lehmann, show that the cutaneous muscles are 2.5 times tougher than 
the tenderloin, the consistency of which is hardly influenced by cooking, 
but cooking considerably diminishes the toughness of the cutaneous mus- 
cles (almost to the consistency of the tenderloin). The toughness of the 
meat is diminished at least 25 per cent, in a few days through the ripening 
process, which is due to the formation of acid in the muscles. 

The experiments performed by Isaak regarding the toughness of 
meat are not sufficiently extensive to draw positive conclusions from them. 
36 



Muscles 37 

The color of the muscles varies between a pale red, gray red, and 
dark red. Pale muscles occur in vertebrates, birds, and certain fish. 
Almost all the food animals show pale meat in certain ages of life 
(calves, young pigs), while in rabbits the meat remains pale all through 
life. Pale meat may also appear in some animals in certain groups of 
muscles alongside of dark-red muscles (hogs, birds). While the color 
of the muscles is somewhat influenced by the blood contents, yet it is not 
produced by the blood. The muscular coloring matter, which is identical 
with the hemoglobin, is rather bound to the myosin and develops in it. 
Further, the color of the meat is influenced by age, sex, race, work, feed- 
ing, etc. Especially in the ripening of meat a specific aroma is developed, 
wt^ch, as a result of the autolysation, manifests itself both by the odor 
and taste (M. Miiller). 

Rigor mortis, which occurs after death, is probably the result of a 
coagulation of the myosin through the formation of lactic acid in the 
muscles. It may also be that it is affected by a particular "rigor mortis 
ferment." It first aft'ects the muscles of the head, and then spreads, in 
accordance to Nysten's law, backward over the body. The time of the 
appearance of rigor mortis depends on the muscular activity before death ; 
the stronger the activity of the muscles during life, the sooner rigor mortis 
sets in. In exhausted animals, rigor mortis, under certain conditions, 
appears immediately after death, the same as in tetanic muscles. Also 
the administration of certain medicines, according to Ostertag, favors 
the early appearance of rigor mortis (veratrin, alcohol, ether, etheric 
oils). In animals which were affected with severe febrile diseases, rigor 
mortis either does not manifest itself or only very slightly, being hardly 
noticeable. High atmospheric temperature favors the appearance of 
rigor mortis, while cold retards it. The occurrence of rigor mortis is in 
the same relation to its dissolution : the sooner rigor mortis sets in the 
quicker the muscles will relax again. Whether the dissolution of rigor 
mortis results from an increase of acid formation in the muscles, which 
again affects the solution of the myosin, or whether it is due to other 
influences, is still the subject of controversy. 

Von Fiirth, in his experiments of extracting the muscle albumenoid bodies and 
of their supposed relation to rigor mortis, obtained results which appear to exclude 
that rigor mortis is affected by an acid precipitation from the muscle albumen; but 
an attempt to deny that the degree of muscular acidity has no influence on the appear- 
ance of rigor mortis, would be too far reaching. In the post-mortem acid formation 
it certainly concerns lactic acid, as the setting free of inorganic phosphoric acid 
does not take place. For the utilization of muscles for manufacturing sausage the 
fact is noteworthy that muscles which still contain the animal heat and in which 
rigor mortis has not appeared, may absorb up to 70 volume per cent, of water if they 
have been previously beaten, or if they were torn in shreds (Ostertag). 



38 Chap. II. Morphology and Chemistry of Principal Tissue, etc. 

The reaction of living muscles is slightly alkaline or neutral, and is 
changed under normal conditions inside 3-6 hours after death to acid, 
through the formation of lactic acid, formic acid, potassium hypophos- 
phate. The latter causes a swelling and loosening of the connective 
tissue elements of the meat, and renders the meat tender. By this process 
the so-called ripening of the meat takes place, the nature and further 
developments of which is discussed in Chap. VIII. The acid reaction 
of the muscles becomes changed to an alkaline reaction with the advance- 
ment of putrefaction. 

An alkaline reaction of completely cooled meat from freshly killed animals 
always indicates an abnormal condition before slaughter. According to Edelmann 
and Noack this is very frequently met in animals which were slaughtered under 
manifestations of suffocation or in condition of exhaustion ; also in severe febrile 
diseases, especially septic conditions and pyemia, there may be an alkalinity of the 
meat resulting. In the latter cases the alkalinity remains permanently, while in the 
first-mentioned condition an acid reaction sometimes occurs after 48-72 hours. An 
alkaline reaction of meat is therefore an unsatisfactory indication only when it is 
lasting, resulting soon in putrefaction of the meat. 

The principal chemical constituents of the muscles are the albu- 
menoids and the nitrogenous bodies which are present in the proportion 
of from 16 to 25 per cent. Calculated on the basis of dry substances, 
meat contains, according to Salkowski, 77.4 per cent, soluable albumen, 
10 per cent, albumen which is soluable in cold water and coagulable 
through heat, and 12 per cent albumen soluable in cold water, but 
uncoagulable (meat bases, lactic acid, albumenose, peptone, salts, espe- 
cially phosphocarnic acid (Siegfried). Fat is present between the muscle 
fibres in the form of globules, to the extent of i per cent, water, in an 
average of 75 per cent. The taste of the meat is dependent upon the 
extractive bodies, principally osmazon (Landois), and the so-called meat 
bases : karnin, kreatin, kreatinin, xanthin, sarkin, hypoxanthin, and the 
muscle salts. The most important salts are potassium phosphate, with 
magnesium and calcium phosphate and the iron compounds, which 
amount to i-i^ per cent. Of the carbohydrates, glycogen generally 
occurs in muscles in very small and greatly varying quantities, especially 
in the horse, dog, and fetus. 

Of the gases which are present in the muscle substance, carbonic 
acid is found in 15-18 volume per cent. (Stintzing) while oxygen is 
absent (Hermann). B'esides it is probable that the volatile sulphur com- 
pounds first demonstrated by Eber, especially H2S, play an important 
part in the changes of the color of the meat after death, and in its preser- 
vation (Glage). Finally enzymes (soluble ferments) are also present 
in tihe muscle, and these play a principal part in the ripening of meat. 



Connective and Elastic Tissues — Fat Tissue 39 

The composition of the meat in various animals and of some of the important 
meat-food products is tabulated according to Konig in the following exhibit (See 
Table, pp. 40-41). As a rule, meat which is rich in fat is always poorer in water, and 
its content of albumen stands in an inverse relation to the richness of the fat. 
According to Ignatiew, meat 'should be valued in accordance with its content of the 
two albumennoid substances, myosin, and myastromin (Danilewsky). The first is 
supposed to increase gradually from the muscles of the head toward the tail, while 
the latter increases in the reverse order. 

Of the other chemical qualities of the muscles, their reductive prop- 
erties are worthy of mention, through which poisons are split into harm- 
less compounds, and coloring matters (bilirubin) are changed into color- 
less modifications. 

B, Connective and Elastic Tissues 

The connective tissue which contains a fibrous structure occurs in 
every part of the body in the most varied forms and connections. Its 
color is usually white, blueish- white, and if it is rich in elastic fibres, it is 
yellowish. The chemical base of the connective tissue is formed by the 
albumenoid collagen containing sulphur, which in cooking is changed 
into glutin (glue). The elastic tissue (ligamentum nuchea, yellow 
abdominal fascia, etc.), which distinguishes itself by tough fibres and a 
yellow color, consists chiefly of sulphur free albumenoid elastin, which 
cannot be converted through heat into glutin. 

C. Fat Tissue 

The fat tissue, which occurs in closest relation to the connective 
tissue, is characterized by the depositions of fat cells in the loose con- 
nective tissue. It occurs almost all over the body in single or in larger 
connecting masses. The largest fatty deposits are about the kidneys 
and heart, in the mesentery (ruffle fat), retroperitoneal fat (leaf lard in 
hogs), while the subcutaneous fat cushion (bacon of hogs), is in some 
parts of the body particularly bulky. The fat of cattle is called tallow, 
that from sheep and goats is termed suet, while that from hogs is called 
lard. All properties of fat are considerably influenced by the species of 
animals, age, sex, and nutritive condition. The structure and consis- 
tency of fat tissues still retaining the animal heat are transparent, homo- 
genous, or slightly stringy and oily. After the fat stiffens, which depends 
on its melting point and the surrounding temperature, it becomes dull, 
greasy, and crumbling. 

The color of the fat varies between the purest white (hog, sheep) 
and a satiated yellow (horse) ; also gray and grayish-red color tints 
may be observed (calf). 



40 Chap. II. Morphology and Chemistry of Principal Tissues, etc. 



Table of comparison of the composition and the utilization of various meats and 
food products , according to K'onig* 



Designation 



) I fat 

>- Beef < medium fat . 

J ( lean 

Veal, first quality... 

Goat meat 

Mutton, first quality 
Pork, first quality... 

Hor.se meat 

Blood 

lAinn' 

Heart 

Kidneys 

Spleeu 

Liver 

Udder 

Bone 

-Cattle tallow 

Lard 



Raw nutritive .sulistances 






IS -00 
20-10 
20-50 
19-95 
20-65 
16-85 
17-65 
21-50 
IS -12 
15-21 
17-55 
18.43 
17.77 
19.92 
10.15 
15.50 
0.44 
0.26 



25.00 

7.40 

2.80 

8.00 

4.30 

27.00 

24.00 

2.50 

0.18 

2.47 

10.12 

4.45 

4.19 

3.65 

27.93 

17.00 

98.15 

99.04 



O.SOt 
O.OSi^ 
0.56S 
0.31^ 
0.385 
1.01§ 
3.33§ 
21.39§ 



0.80 
1.00 
1.20 
1.05 
1.25 
0.90 
0.95 
1.00 
0.85 
1.87 
0.95 
1.19 
1.56 
1.55 
1.08 
42.50 
0.08 



TJtllizable nutritive 
substances 



17.55 
19.60 
19.99 
19.45 
20.13 
16.43 
17.21 
20.96 
17.67 
13.54 
15.62 
16.40 
15.82 
17.73 
9.03 



0.39 
0.23 



3.75 

7.03 

2.66 

7.60 

4.09 

25.65 

22. SO 

2.38 

0.17 

2.30 

9.41 

4.14 

3.90 

3.39 

25.97 



91.28 
95.08 



0.76 
0.03 
0.55 
0.31 
0.38 
1.00 
3.30 
21.18 



™ O) ^ 
S Of o 

+i o o 



o :? 



Asl: 
3.4 
0.9 
0.3 
1.0 
0.5 
4.5 
3.3 
0.3 
0.03 
0.5 
1.5 
0.7 
0.7 
0.7 
9.5 



585.1 
1,033.5 



Preserved meats and sauisages 



Smoked meat from steer 

Ham, pickled or smoked 

Bacon, ditto 

G-wse breast 

Beef sausage 

Cervelat sausage 

Frankfurter sausage 

Blood sausage, best quality... 
Liver sausage, medium quality. 
Link sausage 



47.62 


27.10 


15 35 






10.59 


26.42 


14.50 




28.11 


24.74 


36.45 






10.54 


24.12 


34.68 




10.21 


8.95 


72. 82 






8.02 


8.73 


69.18 




41.35 


21.45 


31.49 


1.1.5 




4.56 


20.91 


29.92 


1.14 


48.24 


20.39 


26.99 






4.43 


19.83 


25.64 




24.18 


23.93 


45.93 






5.96 


'^3.33 


43.63 




42.80 


12.51 


39.11 


2 49 




3.09 


12.20 


.37.15 


2.47 


49.93 


11.81 


11.48 


2.5 . 09 




1.69 


10.51 


10.45 


23.84 


47.80 


12.89 


25.10 


12 . 00 




2.21 


11.47 


22.84 


11.40 


7.07 


16.36 


34.00 


32 . 39 


0.80 


9.48 


13.82 


31.60 


30.67 



1.4 
3.7 
19.8 
3.7 
3.2 
4.7 
7.8 
4.8 
5.9 
7.2 



Meat of game and fowl 



Rabbit 

Deer 

Chicken, lean 

Chicken, fat 

Turkey, medium fat 

Duck, wild 

Goose, fat 

Pigeon 



74.16 
75.76 
76.22 
70.06 
65.60 
70.82 
38.02 
75.10 



23.34 
19.11 

19.72 
18.49 
24.70 
22.65 
15.91 
22.14 



1.13 
1.92 
1.42 
9.34 
S.50 
3.11 
45.59 
1.00 



0.19 
0.42 
1.27 
1.20 

■2!33 

■6!76 



1.18 
1.13 
1.37 
0.91 
1.20 
1.09 
0.48 
1.00 



22.76 
19.28 
19.23 
18.03 
24.08 
22.08 
15.51 
21.59 



1.07 
1.82 
1.35 
8.87 
S.07 
2.95 
43.31 
0.95 



0.19 
1.41 
1.26 
1.19 



2.31 



0.75 



0.1 
0.3 
0.2 
1.3 
0.8 
0.4 
7.0 
0.1 



Meat of fish 



Salmon 

River eel 

Sea eel 

Herring 

Halibut 

Carp 

Pike 

Haddock 

Cod fish 

Haddock, dried and smoked 

Frog leg 

Giant turtle 

Sole 

Ti-out 

Salmon trout 

Tencli 

Turbot 

Caviar 



64.00 
58.21 
72.90 
75.09 
75.24 
73.47 
79.63 
81.50 
82.42 
17 21 
63.64 
,79.78 
82.67 
77.51 
80.50 
80.00 
77.60 
47.86 



21.14 
12.24 
17.96 
15.44 
18.53 
16.67 
18.42 
16.93 
15.97 
72.37 
24.17 
18.49 
14.60 
19.18 
17.52 
17.47 
18.10 
29.34 



13.53 

27.48 
7.82 
7.63 
5.16 
8.73 
0.53 
0.26 
0.31 
2.47 
0.91 
0.53 
0.53 
2.10 
0.74 
0.39 
2.28 

13.98 



98 



1.30 



22 



20.51 
11.87 
17.42 
14.98 
17.97 
16.70 
17.87 
16.42 
15.49 
70.20 
22.96 
17.57 
14.16 
18.60 
16.99 
16.95 
17.56 
28.46 



12.31 
25.01 
7.12 
6.94 
4.70 
7.94 
0.48 
0.24 
0.28 
2.25 
0.S3 
0.48 
0.48 
1.91 
0.67 
0.35 
2.07 
13.28 



1.27 



1.5 

5.2 

1.0 

1.2 

0.6 

1.2 

0.7 

0.04 

0.04 

0.1 

0.3 

0.1 

0.1 

0.3 

0.1 

0.05 

0.3 

1.2 



Fat Tissue 



41 



Table of comparison of the composition and the utilization of various meats and 
food products, according' to Konig* — Continued 



Meat of invertebrate animals 



Designation 



Kaw nutritive substances 



XJtillzable nutritive 
substances 



rH ;3 0) 
.2 9=" 



oi 01353 

^ P OCO) 

is o o 






55 

56 

57 

5S 

59" 

60 

61 

62 

63 



Oysters, meat juice... 

Common mussel 

Lobster, fresh 

Lobster, preserved 

River crabs, fresh 

River crabs, preserved 

Crab, fresh 

Crab, preserved 

Great snail 



87.36 
83.61 

81.84 
77.75 
81.22 
72.74 
78.81 
70.80 

8o.ro 



5.95 
9.97 
14.49 
18.13 
16.00 
13.63 
15.83 
25.38 
16.34 



1.15 
1.17 
1.84 
1.07 
0.46 
0.36 
1.32 
1.00 
1.38 



3.57 
3.57 
0.12 
0.58 
1.01 
0.21 
2.42 
0.24 
0.45 



2.03 
1.61 
1.71 
2.47 
1.31 
13.06 
1.62 
2.58 
1.33 



5.77 
9.47 
13.77 
17.22 
15.20 
12.95 
15.04 
24.11 
15.52 



1.05 
1.06 
1.67 
0.97 
9.42 
0.33 
1.20 
0.91 
1.26 



3.53 
3.53 
0.12 
0.57 
1.00 
0.21 
2.40 
0.24 
0.45 



Asl: 
1.1 
0.6 
0.3 
0.2 
0.1 
0.1 
0.3 
0.1 
0.3 



Meat extracts 









5i 




% 






% 








S3 








1 





m 




C3 







1 








Designation 




s 




+ 






a S 




>. 






1 




1 


9 
w 


3 
< 




fin 


1 
< 



< 


5 P 




A 





< 








'i 


«i 


i 


i 


io 


i 


1' 


io 


i 


Pfs- 


64 


Liebig's Meat Extract 


17.70 


9.17 


6.37 


53.87 


0.59 


0.648 


0.21 




21.26 


15.65 


65 


Abils Fluid Extract 


65.80 


3; 03 


6.91 


9.26 


0.35 


0.148 


0.35 




17.33 


5.65 


66 


Armour's (solid) Extract 


21.00 


9.32 


16.12 


42 


08 


0.567 


0.58 




20.25 


15.45 


67 


Flagg's (solid) Extract 


21.37 


10.01 


17.37 


41 


18 


0.687 


0.35 




19.23 


13.50 



*Konig, The Human Foods and Delicacies, etc., 

jFor utilizable nutritive substances. 

JGlycogen. 

iCarbohydrate. 



4th Edition, 1904, Bd. II, s. 1467. 



Chemically fats are the richest substances among hydro-carbons. 
Fresh adipose tissue shows the following composition in one hundred 
parts, according to E. Schulz and Reinecke : 



Nitro- 



Species 

Steer 

Sheep 

Hog 



genous 
substances 


Fat 


Water 


1. 16 


88.88 


9.96 


1.64 


87.88 


10.48 


1-35 


92.21 


6.44 



The fat itself is a mixture of glycerides (ester, derivative of tri- 
equivalent alcohol) tripalmitin, tristearin, triolein, which, depending upon 
their predominance, influence the consistency of the fat. 



42 Chap. II. Morphology and Chemistry of Principal Tissues, etc. 



D, Bones and Bone Marrow 

In meat inspection the bones come into consideration, principally in 
regard to their form, for the purpose of recognizing the origin and deri- 
vation of the meat. Structural relations, color, and compactness of bones 
are only rarely of importance in connection with the other properties. 

The chemical constituents of bones are bone cartilage (ossein) 30 
per cent., inorganic material 70 per cent., and a small quantity of fat. 
The first consists principally of collagen, which is converted through 
boiling into glutin. The salts in the dry bone consist of an average of 
87.7 per cent, calcium phosphate, 9.1 calcium carbonate, 2 per cent, calcium 
fluoride, and 1.2 per cent, magnesium phosphate. Heinze reports the 
following composition for cattle and sheep bones : 

Cattle bones Sheep bones 

per cent. per cent. 

Calcium carbonate 7.07 7.00 

Magnesium phosphate 2.09 1.59 

Calcium phosphate 58-30 72.70 

Calcium fluoride 1.96 2.17 

Organic substance 30.58 26.54 

The bone marrow appears as a red and reddish-white substance (fat 
marrow). The latter consists of about 96 per cent, fat, and contains a 
firmness in the various animals, which corresponds to the consistence of 
fat in the respective species. The red bone marrow is semi-solid. 

E. Cartilage 

From the standpoint of meat inspection cartilage is of only very 
slight importance. It consists of a collagenous basic substance which is 
converted through boiling into gelatin. 

F, Blood and Blood Vessels 

The question regarding the quantity of blood in the body has already 
been considered on page 25. In thoroughly bled animals, liquid blood is 
only found in the small veins of the muscles and organs, while coagulated 
blood may be seen in the heart and in the large veins. The arteries are 
always empty of blood. Regarding the color, coagulation and microscop- 
ical appearance, the blood of healthy animals should not show a deviation 
from the normal. There is a peculiar odor of the blood, characteristic 
to each animal species. It results from the volatile fatty acids and 
appears more pronounced upon the addition of sulphuric acid. 



Lymph Glands and Lymph Vessels 43 

The chemical composition of the blood consists, according to Konig, 
of 80.82 per cent, water, 18.12 per cent, nitrogenous substances, 0.18 
per cent, fat, 0.03 per cent, nitrogen — free extractive bodies — and 0.85 per 
cent. ash. On account 6f the richness of the blood in albumen, it is a 
very nutritive food. 

G, Lymph Glands and Lymph Vessels 

Of the lymphatic system the lymph glands, which lately have been 
designated as lymph nodes, are especially of great importance in meat 
inspection. Concerning their size it should only be mentioned, that rela- 
tively they appear larger in younger animals than in old ones. The same 
fl^n be applied to the lymph contents of the glands, while, moreover, the 
intestinal glands are richer in lymph than the body glands. All the lymph 
vessels of a certain region empty into a certain lymph gland, but the ana- 
to,mical borders of such a region are not established in the entire body. As 
far as- our present knowledge of the lymphatic system permits us to sepa- 
rate the regions of the various lymph glands, it may be accepted that these 
are not connected with each other, and that to every part of the body 
belong one or more distinct lymph glands (corresponding lymph glands). 
Their size, number, and location are subject to certain deviations. 

For the purpose of meat inspection it is best to classify the lymph 
glands in accordance with their draining regions, into visceral lymph 
glands, muscular or body lymph glands, and mixed lymph glands. To 
the latter class belong all those lymph glands which receive their lymph 
not alone from the viscera, but also from the muscles (muscles, skeleton, 
etc.). 

1« Visceral Lymph Glands 

Visceral lymph glands are those which receive their lymph princi- 
pally from the viscera to which they belong. Those lymph glands, which 
belong functionally to the various organs or viscera of the body, and 
which are important in meat inspection, are described in the following:* 

(a) Lymph Glands of the Digestive Apparatus, Including the Abdominal 

and Pelvic Cavities 

I. Submaxillary lymph glands. — L. Superficially in the submaxillary 
space ; in cattle at the angle of the lower jaw bone, sometimes present as 
two small nodes; in hogs, adjacent and to the inside of the submaxillary 
salivary gland. A. Superficial parts of the head, interior nasal passages 
and buccal cavity. E. Superior cervical lymph glands. (Fig. 21b,- 
22U, 23U. 

*L Signifies the location of the lymph gland, A afferent vessels, and B efferent 
vessels. 



44 Chap. II. Morphology and Chemistry of Principal Tissues, etc. 



2. Parotid lymph 
submaxillary salivary g 



Fig. 21. Head of cow 
with the tongue cut out, 
a, a', retropharangeal 
lymph glands ; b, sub- 
maxillary lymph glands ; 
c, tonsils ; d, posterior 
nares ; e, cephalic flexure ; 
f, submaxillary salivary 
gland; g, styloid pro- 
cesses of the hyoid bone. 



gland. — L. Median surface of the parotid and 
lands. In cattle a special large gland extending 
over the maxillary border of the parotid, and 
partly laying on the masseter muscle. In hogs 
very numerous, large, and red in color. A. Dor- 
sal half of the head, cranial cavity, base of the 
cranium, tongue, soft palate, esophagus, and 
larynx. E. Superior cervical lymph glands. 

3. Siipej'ior cervical lymph glands. — Partly 
united with portions of the previous gland to the 
retropharangeal lymph glands. L. Posterior to 
the larynx and pharynx near the thyroid gland; 
in cattle at the base of the cranium, in the supe- 
rior part of the pharyngeal cavity forming two 
large bodies. A. Inside of the head, together 
with the cranial, buccal, and tracheal cavities, and 
the efiferent lymph vessels of i and 2. E. Middle 
and inferior cervical lymph glands. (Fig. 21a, 
22U, 23V). 

4. Middle cervical glands. — L. Middle of 
the neck, at the side of the trachea, anterior to 
the carotid artery. A. Esophagus and trachea, 
superior cervical glands. E. Inferior cervical 
lymph glands. 

5. Inferior cerzncal glands, prepectoral glands. 
- — L. At the entrance of the thorax anterior to 
the trachea and extending into the thoracic cav- 
ity. A. Neighboring parts, shoulder, upper arm, 
and efiferent lymph vessels from middle cervical 
glands (and therefore also from i and 3), and 
also from the prescapular lymph gland. E. Tho- 
racic duct, i. e., the great right lymph vein 
(Fig. 29b). 

6. Gastric lymph glands. — L. Small curva- 
ture, toward both surfaces of the stomach. In 
ruminants in the long groove of the rumen and 
at the attachment of the small mesentery. A. 
Wall of the stomach. E. Receptaculum chyli 
(Fig. 25). 

7. Mesenteric lymph glands. — L. Between the 
peritoneal folds of the mesentery along the small 
curvature of the small intestines, between the 
flexures of the colon and in the mesentery of the 



Lymph Glands and Lymph Vessels 



45 



same. In hogs also a group at the superior border of the mesentery. In 
dogs on the jejunum there is a very long mesenteric lymph gland, the 
so-called pancreas Aselli. A. Wall of large and small intestines. 
E. Receptaculum chyh (Fig. 24). 

8. Anal lymph glands. — L. Two or three lymph glands in the peri- 




Fig. 22. Head of cow, the right submaxillary and left styloid of the hyoid bone 
of which are removed, i. Articular surface of the temporal bone. 2. External 
auditory meatus. 3. Jugular process of the occipital bone. 4. Petrous bone. 
5. Muscular attachment to petrous bone. 6. Occipital condyle. 7. Medulla oblongata. 
8. Pterygoid bone. 9. Tonsils. 10. Styloid process of the hyoid bone. 11. Thyroid 
cornua of the hyoid bone. 12. Cricoid laryngeal cartilage. 13. Ring of the trachea; 
a, masseter muscle; b, temporal muscle; c, tensor muscle of the palate ; d, levator 
muscle of the palate ; e, pterygopharyngeal muscle ; f, chondro-, crico-, thyreo- 
pharyng. muscle; g, hyoglossal muscle; h, styloglossal muscle; i, M. keratohyodeus 
brevis ; k, M. hyothyroideus ; /, and m, M. omohyoideus ; n, M. sternothyreoid ; 
o, M. myoglossus; p, M. mylohyoid.; q, M. sternhoyoideus; r, M. long, capit. ; s, M. 
rect. capit. ; t, arcus palato glossus ; S, submaxillary salivary gland ; n, submaxillary 
lymph gland ; V retropharangeal lymph glands. 

proctal connective tissue in the vicinity of the levator ani muscle. A. Rec- 
tum, perineum, and root of the tail. E. Sublumbar lymph glands 
(Fig. 27b). 

9. Hepatic lymph glands — Portal lymph glands. — L. In the posterior 
hepatic fissure (Porta hepatis) ; in hogs on the portal vein around the 



46 Chap. II. Morphology and Chemistry of Principal Tissues, etc. 

foramen of Winslow, usually conspicuous by their brown color. A. Liver 
tissue. E. Receptaculum chyli (Fig-. 25k and 26c). 

10. Splenic lymph glamds. — L. Hilus of the spleen, between the lay- 
ers of the gastro-splenic ligament. A. Spleen, stomach, and omentum. 
E. Receptaculum chyli. 

I. Siibliunbar l\uiph glands. — L. Side and ventral surface_ of the 
lumbar vertebrae, dorsal to the 
great blood vessels, partially cov- 
ered by the lumbar muscles. A. 
Dorsal abdominal wall, lumbar ver- 
tebrae, internal genital organs. 
Lymph vessels from the external 

and internal iliacs, deep inguinal, ^~ ^. 'JLlI^V- 

sacral, and popliteal glands. E. 
Receptaculum chyli (Fig. 27e). 




Fig. 23. Right half of a vertical section of a hog's head ; i, cartilaginous nucleus 
attaching the hyoid to the temporal bone; 2, jugular process of the occipital bone; 
a, I\I. longus coli; b, ]M. sternocleido mastoid.; c, ]\I. sternocephalic. ; d. INI. pterygoid, 
medial.; e^ JNl. sternohyoid.; f, soft palate; g, post, nares ; 6", submaxillary salivary 
gland; u, submaxillary lymph gland; V, retropharangeal lymph gland. 

12. Sacral lymph glajids. — L. Along the ventral border of the 
sacrum. A. Dorsal pelvic wall, rectum, and internal genital organs. 
E. Sublumbar glands (Fig. 27d). 

13. Internal iliac lymph glands. — L. At the angle between the ex- 
ternal iliac and the hypogastric arteries, i. e., between the former and the 
abdominal aorta, on the ventral side of the ileum. A. Abdominal and 
pelvic walls, bones of the pelvis, sacrum, muscles of the croup, rectum. 



Lymph Glands and Lymph Vessels 



47 



internal genital organs, external iliac lymph glands. E. Sublumbar lymph 
glands and the receptaculum chyH (Fig. 27c). 





Fig. 24. In- 
testinal canal 
of cattle spread 
out. C, colon; 
Ca, caecum; D, 
duodenum ; /, 
jejunum; H, 
ileum.; R, rec- 
tum; m, mes- 
enteric lymph 
glands of the 
small intes- 
tines. 



Fig. 25. Stomach and portion of the intes- 
tinal canal of a hog; a, pyloric portion of the 
stomach; b, duodenum; c, jejunum; d, caecum; 
e, colon; f, rectum; h, foramen of Winslow; 
i portal vein; k. hepatic lymph glands; /, gas- 
tric lymph glands ; m, esophagus. 



48 Chap. II. Morphology and Chemistry of Principal Tissues, etc. 





Fig. 26. Gastric surface of the 
liver of cattle ; a^ vena cava ; b, 
entrance of the portal vein; c, 
portal lymph glands ; d, lobus cau- 
datus (^Spigelium) ; c, gall bladder. 

14. External iliac lymph 
glands. — L. Small and de- 
tached, in the neighborhood 
of the angle of the ileum, in 
the angle between both 
branches of the circumflex 
iliac artery. A. Abdominal 
wall, lateral surface of the 
upper part of the thigh. E. 
Sublumbar lymph glands. 

(b) Lymph Glands of the 
Respiratory Apparatus, and 
d Thoracic Cavity 

The lymph glands described 
under A from 1-5 belong also 

Fig. 27. Left hind-quarter of a 
bull, cut very long. A, aorta; V, 
vena cava ; Z, diaphragm ; ZP, 
pillars of the diaphragm; L, ex- 
ternal inguinal canal ; N, left kid- 
ne3%' Knr, right adrenal capsule; 
N}il, left adrenal capsule; P, pan- 
creas ; R, renal artery ; /, external 
iliac arterj'. a, superficial inguinal 
h-mph gland: b. anal h-mph 
gland; c, internal iliac gland: 
d, sacral h-mph gland; e, lumbar 
glands ; f, renal lymph gland. 



Lymph Glands and Lymph Vessels 



49 



to the respiratory apparatus. As previously stated, they receive lymph 
from regions belonging in parts to the digestive as well as to the respira- 
tory apparatus. 

6. Bronchial lymph glands. — L. Bifurcation of the trachea, in the 
lung substance at the branching of the bronchi. In cattle they form a con- 
tinuous chain with the posterior mediastinal lymph glands ; there is one 
large or several small glands to 
the left of the arch of the aorta ; 
one on the right, at the branch- 
ing of the bronchus of the ceph- 
alic lobe, or at the root of the 
k)bule of the right lobe, besides 
a lymph gland of the size of a 
hazelnut at the base of the divi- 
sion between the cardiac and 
diaphragmatic lobe of the right 
lung. In hogs there is generally 
another lymph gland at the at- 
tachment of the mediastinum at 
the dorsal angle of the bifurca- 
tion of the two principal bronchi 
(middle bronchial lymph gland). 
A. Lungs and lymph vessels 
from the posterior mediastinal 
gland. E. Thoracic duct and 
partly to the posterior mediasti- 
nal glands (Fig. 28 a, b). 
7. Mediastinal lymph glands. 

(a) Amerior mediastinal glands. 
L. Numerous in the pre-cardial 

mediastinal space near the supe- 
rior vena cava. In cattle several 

large lymph glands (Fig. 29 a), 

above the first section of the 

breastbone, near the entrance of 

the thorax. A. Fleart, pericar- 




Fig. 28. Lungs and heart of steer, sus- 
pended dorsal view. Aa, aorta ascen- 
dens; Ad, aorta descendens cut and 
flapped over to the left; Ap, art. pulmo- 
nalis; Acs, left cordal atrium; L, left,. 
U, right lung; Oe, esophagus; T, tra- 
chea ; a, right superior bronchial lymph 
gland; h, left bronchial lymph gland; c,. 
posterior mediastinal lymph glands. 



dium, thymus gland, thoracic wall, 

diaphragm, mediastinum. E. Thoracic duct or great right lymph vein. 

(b) Posterior mediastinal lymph glands. — L. In the post-car dial 
mediastinum, along the esophagus, and posterior aorta. In cattle 8-12 
lymph glands are located along the dorsal wall of the esophagus, the 
posterior node of which is usually strikingly large. A. Esophagus, peri- 

5 



50 Chap. II. Morphology and Chemistry of Principal Tissues, etc. 



cardium, diaphragm, mediastinum, parietal surface of the liver. In hogs 
they are very small or absent (Fig. 28c). E. Efferent vessels empty in 
part into the bronchial glands, in part into the anterior mediastinal glands 
and in part into the thoracic duct. 

8. LvJiiph glands of the thoracic zuall. — (a) Dorsal lymph glands. — 
L. Small, to the side of the vertebrse, between the consecutive articula- 
tions of the heads of the 
ribs, and between the 
layers of the intercostal 
muscle. A. Dorsal ver- 
tebrse, muscles of the 
same, pleura, diaphragm, 
and intercostal muscles. 
E. Thoracic duct. 

(b) Inferior thoracic 
lymph glands. — L. Dor- 
sal surface of the breast- 
bone along the internal 
thoracic vein, i. e., be- 
tween the costal carti- 
lage-breastbone articu- 
lations. In hogs they 
are only exceptionally 
present. A. Straight ab- 
dominal, transverse ab- 
dominal, thoracic, and 
intercostal muscles, 
pleura and diaphragm. 
E. Receptaculum chyli, 
inferior cervical glands 
(Fig. 29a). 

(c) Lymph glands of 
the genito-urinary ap- 
paratus. 

( I ) Renal I y m p h 
glands. — L. Hilus of the 
kidneys, at the angle be- 
tween the aorta and re- 
'A. Kidneys. E. Recep- 




Fig. 29. Portion of the left thoracic wall of heifer. 
A , art. thoracic, int. ; V , vena thoracic, int. ; /, 
muse, sternocephalic. ; M, muse, transvers. thorac. 
cut through. PP', muse, pectoral. ; R, ribs ; Z, dia- 
phragm ; a, inferior thoracic lymph glands ; a' , an- 
terior mediastinal gland ; h, inferior cervical or pre- 
pectoral lymph glands. 



nal artery or posterior vena cava, and renal vein, 
taculum chyli (Fig. 27b). 

(2-4) Lymph glands, which have been described under (a), 11-13 
A. Ureters, bladder, urethra, and genitals inside of the pelvic cavity 
E. Receptaculum chyli and sublumbar lymph glands. 



Lymph Glands and Lymph Vessels 51 

(5) Superficial inguinal glands. — L. In male animals these include 
several lymph nodes, between the abdominal wall and the prepuce and 
scrotum. In female animals they are located superficially behind the 
udder. In cows these are the large lymph glands on each side behind and 
above the udder (supramammary lymph glands). A. External genitals, 
udder, ventral abdominal wall and median surface of the thigh. E. Deep 
inguinal lymph gland (Fig. 27a). 

2, Body Lymph Glands 

As applied to meat inspection the term muscle or body lymph glands 
refers to those lymph glands which drain regions in the skeleton and 




Fig. 30. Left fore-quarter of heifer with exposed prescapular lymph gland, a,a m. 
trapesius cervical, and thoracal., b, h' m. omotransversarius ; c, c' , c" , d, m. brachioce- 
phalicus (of which d is the m. cleidomas'.oideus), e jugular vein, /', and g, m sterno- 
cephalic. (superficial and deep portion), h, sternum, i, m. pectoral, superficial., 
k, spinal, scapul., I, prescapular lymph gland, ;«., pars acromial and m' pars scapular, 
of the m. deltoideus, n, caput, lateral, and n' caput, long, of the m. triceps brachii, 
o, m. latissim. dorsi, p, m. serrat. ventral., q, m. pectoral, profund., r, m. obliq. ext. 
abdominal. 

muscles, i. e., those tissues which enclose thein as well as the bones and 
skin, but they do not receive lymph from the viscera. 

The body lymph glands, which are important in meat inspection, are 
the following: 

I. Prescapular lymph glands. — L. Anterior border of the shoulder, 
above the scapulo-humeral articulation, and covered principally by the 
angularis scapulae muscle and sometimes by the dorsal border of the 
mastoido-humeralis muscle. A. Neck, shoulder, upper and lower leg. 
E. Inferior cervical lymph glands (Fig. 30I). 



52 Chap. II. Morphology and Chemistry of Prmcipal Tissues, etc. 



2. Axillary lymph glands. — L. Median surface of the shoulder, dor- 
sal border of the pectoralis minor muscle, posteriorly to the shoulder 
joint, near the entrance of the lateral thoracic vein into the axillary vein. 

They are usually ab- 
sent in hogs. A. Shoul- 
der, upper arm, thorac- 
ic wall, and elbow 
lymph gland. E. In- 
ferior cervical lymph 
glands. 

3. E I b zv lymph 
glands. — They occur 
only in the horse. L. 
Median side of the up- 
per arm near the 'cubi- 
tal articulation be- 
tween the biceps bra- 
chii muscle, and the 
median anconeus mus- 
cle on the brachial vein. 
A. Foot and lower arm. 
E. Axillary and pre- 
scapular lymph glands. 

4. Precrural lymph 
glands. — L. In the ten- 
donous portion of the 
external abdominal 
muscle on the free bor- 
der of the fascia lata 
muscle in the middle, 
between the patella and 



Fig. 31. Left hind- 
quarter of steer with ex- 
posed precrural and pop- 
liteal lymph glands ; a, m. 
gluteus superficial., whicli 
fuse with h and b' the 
m. biceps femoris; c, pop- 
liteal lymph gland; d, m. 
semi-tendinos. ; e, m. semi- 
membranos. ; f, m. gluteus 
medius ; g. m. tensor fas- 
ciae lat. /;, m. cutaneus 
maxium. ; i, m. quadriceps 
femoris ; /, precrural or 
kneefold lymph gland, 1, 
lateral angle of the ileum 
(hip bone). 




Lymph Glands and Lymph Vessels 



53 



the external angle of the ileum. In cattle and hogs this gland is a long 
single one. A. Abdominal wall and lateral surface of the posterior limb. 
E. Sublumbar and lateral iliac glands (Figs. 31I and 32f). 

5. Popliteal lymph gland. — L. On the gastrocnemius muscle, 
between the biceps femoris muscle and the semitendinosus muscle. It is 
frequently absent in hogs, but there is always present a superficial gland 
of the size of a small hazelnut in the subcutis of the hollow of the hock 
about a handbreadth from the point of the hock. A. Lower part of leg 





Fig. 32 



Fig. 33 



Fig. 32. Median view of the right hind-quarter of a hog with exposed precrural 
lymph gland. i, pelvic symphysis; 2, first sacral vertebra; a, m. gracilis; 
b, m. quadriceps femor. ; c, m. tensor fascia lat. ; d, m. obliquus intern, and transver- 
sus abdominal. ; e, m. iliopsoas ; f, precrural lymph gland. 

Fig. 33. Lateral view of the right hind-quarter of a hog with exposed popliteal 
lymph gland a. 



and foot. E. Deep inguinal, sublumbar and external ischial lymph 
glands (Fig. 31 c and 33 a). 

6. Deep inguinal lymph glands. — L. In the inguinal canal lying 
above the femoral artery and vein. Only in the horse do they exist as 
large glands. A. Posterior limb with the exception of the external sur- 
face of the thigh and muscle thereof; abdominal wall. E. Sublumbar 
lymph glands and receptaculum chyli. 

7. External ischial lymph gland (Franck). — L. In cattle about the 
size of a walnut on the ventral border of the coccygeus, covered by the 
broad ligament of the pelvis (Stroh). In hogs it lays usually more super- 



54 Chap. II. Morphology and Chemistry of Principal Tissues, etc. 

ficially. A. Pelvic and rump muscles and popliteal lymph gland. E. Sacral 
and sublumbar lymph glands. In ruminants under the skin of the 
triangle in front of the external angle of the ileum. A. Neighboring 
parts of the skin. E. Precrural lymph gland. 

In the subcutis there are besides small lymph glands at various parts ; 
they are, however, not constant in their position and they also vary in size. 

H, Comparative Anatomy of the Most Important Viscera 

Every veterinary inspector should be thoroughly versed concerning the 
anatomical characteristics of the normal viscera of the domesticated ani- 
mals, and therefore the principal differential signs of certain viscera will 
be briefly specified below. 

1. Tongue. Cattle* — Round, large body; mucous membrane frequently shows 
blackish spots ; the filiform papillae are horny, especially strong along the lateral 
border; numerous fungiform papillae mostly arranged in groups and scattered over 
the entire dorsum; 28-34 circumvallate papillse, which are arranged in two rows in 
the form of a V; the foliate papillse are absent; the epiglottis is frequently attached 
and appears oval. Sheep and Goa^j.— Similar to cattle; the center of the tip is 
slightly grooved ; the papillae of the body are comparatively even larger than in 
cattle and are grouped into compact masses; filiform and fungiform papillse are 
also present on the inferior surface; sheep have 18-24, goats have 12 circumvallate 
papillae. Hogs. — Long and narrow; 2 circumvallate papillae and numerous fungi- 
form papillae at the base ; long, soft papillae directed backwards ; foliate papillae 
have mostly five cross fissures; epiglottis broad, at the free border flatly rounded. 
Horses. — Flat, even, long point; intense toughness of the mucous membrane in the 
dorsum; fungiform papillae especially well defined on the lateral surface; 2 circum- 
vallate and 2 foliate papillae with 3-10 cross furrows ; epiglottis leaf-shaped. Dogs. — 
Broad, flat, sharp lateral borders, bright red color; under the mucous membrane on 
the posterior surface is found the flask- shaped cartilage-like body, the so-called 
lyssa; long, soft papillae at the base; 4-6 circumvallate papillae; foliate papillae, 
indistinct, with 5-7 cross fissures ; epiglottis rhomboidal. 

2. Stomach. — The relation of the stomachs of the ruminants do not requirc- 
special mention. Hogs. — Triangular dilation on the left dorsal end; cardiac por- 
tion funnel-shaped ; the portion covered by esophageal mucous membrane is small ; 
at the elongation of the small curvature lays the cone-shaped pylorus, which con- 
tains a spincter muscle. Horses. — Left half of the stomach covered with esophageal 
mucous membrane, which is sharply separated by a jagged border from the glandu- 
lar mucous membrane ; esophageal orifice is slanting, with spincter muscle ; double 
pyloric, sphincter. Dogs. — Left half round, pyloric part shaped like intestines ; esoph- 
ageal orifice conical, single pylorus sphincter ; esophageal region absent. 

3. Intestinal Canal. — In cattle, swine, and goats the colon is spirally coiled upon 
itself while externally and ventrally to it lays the jejunum on a short mesentery, 
hanging in numerous convolutions. In hogs the colon forms a convolution the shape 
of a nine-pin. Regarding the diameter, the colon of cattle, sheep, goats, and dogs 
differs only slightly from the small intestines ; in horses and hogs the colon is con- 



* Regarding the weight of the liver, heart, spleen, kidneys, and lungs of cattle 
see also page 57. 



Comparative Anatomy of the Most Important Viscera 55 

siderably larger than the small intestines. Colon and cecum of the hog and horse 
have longitudinal muscular bands and are sacculated. 

4. Liver. — Color is generally reddish-brown ; in fat animals and in those of 
advanced pregnancy it is yellowish-brown. Cattle. — Indistinctly three-lobed, Spigelian 
lobe rounded on the right fobe ; falciform ligament absent, and as a rule the ligi- 
mentum teres ; gall bladder pear-shaped, extending a long distance over the ventral 
border of the liver, average weight, according to Schmaltz, -^^ of the dressed 
weight ; in cattle of over 250 kg., dressed weight, 5-6 kg. ; in lighter animals, 3-4^2 
kg. Sheep and Goats. — Covering of the ventral border at the hight of the attach- 
ment of the round ligament relatively deeper than in cattle, the lobus Spigelii tri- 
angular running into a point ; the gall bladder appears similar to that in cattle ; weight 
sV of the dressed weight, from 375-875 g. Hogs. — Four lobes besides the lobus 
quadratus and caudatus; prominent esophageal notch, the gall bladder deep in the 
right portion of the middle lobe ; the head of the gall bladder does not quite reach 
flie ventral border of the liver ; the portal vein is at the dorsal border of the liver, 
more or less surrounded by the liver parenchyma ; lateral ligaments are absent ; liver 
lobules are remarkably distinct, due to the rich development of the interlobular con- 
nective tissue; weight, ^^g of the dressed weight, ^ kg. Horses. — Three distinct 
lobes, the lobus and processus cavidatus running into a point (lobus Spigelii;, deep 
esophageal notches; gall bladder absent; average weight, 5 kg., in old horse often 
only 2.5-3.5 kg. Dogs. — From the parietal surface four lobes, and from the visceral 
6 lobes are noticeable ; deep esophageal notch ; the cavity for the gall bladder is 
formed by the right border of the lobus quadratus, and the left border of the right 
middle lobe ; the head of the gall bladder does not reach the ventral border of the 
liver. 

5. Pancreas. Cattle. — Light yellow-brown to reddish yellow-brown, free of fat. 
Calves and Sheep. — Similar to cattle ; in fattened animals it is lighter in color. Hogs. — 
Grayish-yellow, extensively intermixed with fat. Horses — Reddish-yellow to 
reddish-gray. Dogs. — Pale red. 

6. Spleen. Cattle. — Long and flat, uniformly broad, with rounded edges ; in bulls 
and fattened steers, reddish-brown ; in cows, grayish-blue ; consistence in bulls and 
fattened steers quite dense, in the cow loose ; the borders of the first are rounded, 
in the latter, they are sharp. The surfaces in the bulls and steers are arched ; in the 
cow flat; the follicles in the first are larger (up to the size of hemp seeds) than in 
the latter ; weight in animals dressing over 250 kg., i kg. ; in those dressing below 
that weight, 0.5-0.75 kg. Calves. — Reddish-brown to blueish-violet ; borders and sur- 
faces are rounded ; consistence soft. Sheep and Goats. — Blunt, angular, of the shape 
of a palm of the hand ; reddish-brown ; consistence soft to elastic. Hogs. — Long 
tongue-shaped, with the exception of the ends, which are almost uniformly broad ; 
cross-section is triangular ; pale red ; consistence soft, loose. Horses. — Flat, elongated, 
triangular, and slightly bended in a shape of a scythe ; blueish-red, assuming a shade 
of reddish-brown; the curved anterior border is thinner than the rounded posterior 
border; weight, 255 of the body weight, 0.5-1.5 kg. Dogs. — Tongue-shaped, broad 
at the ventral extremity; light red; weight, gjg to eoo of the body weight. 

7. Lungs. Cattle. — Left lung has three lobes, cephalic, cardiac, and diaphrag- 
matic; right lung four to five lobes; the division of lobules is more pronounced 
than in any other food animal; intralobular connective tissue is well developed. 
Sheep. — Structure of lobules very indistinct ; in the goat, however, it is more dis- 
tinct. Hogs. — In the left lunp;, two to three lobes (the cephalic lobe, which is sometimes 
divided and the principal lobe), the right lung has four lobes. Horses — The left/ 
lung has two lobes (cephalic and principal lobes) ; the right has three; lobular struc- 
tiire not very distinct; the bronchial tube for the cephalic lobe of right lung, which 



56 Chap. II. Morphology and Chemistry of Principal Tissues, etc. 

originates directly from the trachea, and which is present in ruminants and hogs, is 
abseryt. Dogs.— Leit lung has three, right lung has four separate lobes, the notches 
of which extend up to the principal bronchi; lobular structure is indistinct, fre- 
quently anthracosis is seen. 

8. Thyroid gland. Cattle. — Two flat lobes connected by an isthmus which is 
T-1.5 cm. broad; structure lobulated, light reddish-brown. Calves. — Darker, isthmus 
stronger. Sheep. — On each side a thick brownish-red lobe, with the appearance very 
much like muscle; isthmus very indistinct. Hogs. — Connected, flat, not lobulated, 
dark-red. ^Horses. — Each side portion roundish, oval, of the size of a prune, reddish 
brown, isthmus mostly consists only of connective tissue. Dogs. — Side lobe large, 
elongated, isthmus in large dogs very distinct, in smaller dogs only slightly or 
unobservable. 

9. Thymus gland (Sweetbread, German kalbsmilch, bries, broschen). Cattle. — 
Divided, lobulated, whitish-yellow, first disappears from the neck portion; in the 
thorax even after 8-9 years it is plainly noticeable. Calves. — Reaches up to the lar- 
ynx ; in the first week of life it weighs 100-200 g., after 4-6 weeks, 400-600 g. Hogs. — 
Both cervical lobes reach to the throat, color grayish-yellow. Horses. — Disappears 
at 2-2i/^ years. Dogs. — Flat body, which divides anteriorly and also posteriorly into 
two lobes ; pale-grap ; only traces left after 2-3 years. 

10. Heart. — In all animals reddish-brown; consistence firm. Cattle. — In the 
fibrous ring of the aorta are two heart bones, which in calves are cartilaginous until 
the fourth week. Hogs. — Apex more rounded than in sheep ; heart cartilage ossi- 
fies in older age, as in the horse. Dogs. — Almost round; heart cartilage is absent, 
or is very small. 

11. Kidneys. Cattle. — Consists of 16-26 lobules, which fuse in the deeper 
portion, and as there are just as many calices and renal papillae, there is no true 
kidney pelvis; reddish-brown; average weight 3 Jo of the body weight, 952 g. 
Sheep and Goats. — Bean-shaped; not lobulated, thick, arched; dark-brown to brown; 
mutual renal papillae and pelvis. Hogs. — Bean-shaped, not lobulated, flattened; 
brown to yellow-brown; 10-12 renal papillae; pelvis with several calices; average 
weight, X50 of the body weight, 420 g. Horses. — Left kidney longer than broad, 
(bean-shaped) ; the right is triangular, flat, not lobulated ; brown ; renal papillae are 
fused into a crescent projection; kidney pelvis has two terminal recesses. Dogs. — 
Bean-shaped, thick, only one renal papillae ; reddish-brown ; kidney pelvis has two 
terminal recesses. 

12. Urinary bladder. Cattle.- — Very large, almost entirely covered by the 
peritoneum ; the triangular space between the orifices of the ureters and the urethra 
called the trigone, is very small, hardly perceptible ; similar in sheep, goats, hogs, 
and horses; covered by the peritoneum in the form of a cap; mucous membrane 
contains noduli lymphatici. Dogs. — Roundish, almost entirely covered by perito- 
neum; ligamentum vesico-umbilicale is present. 

13. Uterus. Cattle. — Two horns; from external appearances a body is 
apparently present but actually it is only 1-2 cm. long ; mucous membrane forms 
cotyledons. Sheep and Goats. — Horns longer, at the extremities round like intes- 
tines ; mucous membrane forms very small cotyledons, which in pregnancy become 
cup-shaped (uterine cups) ; screw-shaped folds in the cervix. Hogs. — Horns long, 
having the appearance of small intestines; body short, 5 cm. long; the cervix proper 
is absent; mucous membrane on the corresponding place in the form of oblique 
rolls (pads) ; mucous membrane in thin folds. Horses. — Two horns, very long 
body (13-15 cm.), prominent cervix with close folds of the mucous membrane 
arranged lengthwise. Dogs. — Long, straight horns, short body, with a strong 
muscle wall for a cervix. 



Peculiarities of the Meat from Various Animals 



57 



14. Ovaries. Cattle. — Oval, flat, with a large ovulation surface. Sheep and 
Goats. — Roundish, relatively large. Hogs. — Roundish, nodular, like a blackberry, 
more or less enveloped by the ovarian sac. Horses -Almost bean- shaped, dense, 
entirely covered with peritoneum, up to the notches of the ovulation grooves. 
Dogs. — Elongated, has no notches, enveloped by ovarian sac and fat. 

15. Mammce. Cattle. — Four quarters, with one teat each, which has only one 
opening; parenchyma gray to whitish-red. Sheep. — Two halves, each has one small 
teat with one opening. Goats. — Two large, loose-hanging halves, 'each having a 
strong teat which is turned forward, and has one opening. Hogs. — The mammae 
extends from the vulva to the sternum, and has 5-6 divisions on each side, each 
having one teat, which contains one or two openings ; the parenchyma is richly 
intermixed with fat. Horses. — Two elongated round halves, each having one flat 
triangular teat, which has two openings ; parenchyma, whitish-red. Dogs. — As in the 
hog, on each side there are 4-5 divisions, each having one teat, the point of which 
is pierced by 8-12 openings, like a sieve. 

Schneider undertook investigations to establish the absolute and rela- 
tive weight of the heart, lungs, liver, kidneys, and spleen of cattle, the 
results of which are compiled in the following table : 



Liver . . . 
Heart. . 
Spleen. . 
Kidneys 
Lungs . . 



Absolute average weight 



leg. 

i,mi 

3,012 
1,155 
0,727 
3,93 



Teg. 
.^.,947 
2,592 
0,S7S 
0,613 
3,33 



kg. kg. 

5,497 4,787 
2,205 1,89 
0,789 lo,744 
0,61/ 10,497 
2,99 2,657 



Relative average weight 



a. To the live weight 
of the animal 



m 


m 


(b 




W 


P 


li 


* 


1,038 


1,023 


0,414 


0,442 


0,159 


0,152 


0,1 


0,105 


0,541 


0,56 



1,206 
0,492 
0,171 
0,129 
0,653 



1,156 

0,457 
0,163 
0,115 
0,66 



&. To the dressed weight 
of the carcas.s 



1,825 
0,727 
0,278 
0,176 
0,95 



1,924 
0,835 
0,285 
0,199 
1,056 



2,. 531 
0,997 
0,356 
0,278 
1,326 



2,203 
0,875 
0,334 
0,235 
1,102 



Accordingly the absolute weight of the 5 organs averages the highest in steers, 
and gradually diminishes from the steers to the heifers. The relative weight 
averages the smallest in the steers and increases from the steers to the heifers and 
cows. 

2. Peculiarities of the Meat from Various Animals 



Meat and fat of all animal species possess certain peculiarities which 
are more or less influenced by breed, sex, age, feeding, and condition of 
health of the respective animals, and thus they fluctuate inside of certain 
limits. 

A. Beef 

Generally beef shows a saturated red color with a slight tint of 
brown ; it has a firm consistency and its cut surface is shiny. The odor is 
characteristic and the meat is generally intermingled with fat. The con- 
nective tissue is white and soft. After chilling, the fat shows quite a 



58 Chap. II. Morphology and Chemistry of Principal Tissues, etc. 

firm consistence, a white to yellow color, and a peculiar odor. In old 
cattle the fat assumes a more yellowish color, and is looser in consistency. 
Intensive yellow coloration of the fat may also be met in pasture-fed cat- 
tle. Rich feeding with slop, oil cake, acorn cake, or cotton-seed meal pro- 
duces a soft, loose, yellow fat. The bone marrow is pure white to reddish- 
yellow, and of a moderately firm consistency. Fattened steers up to six 
years old have bright, dark brick-red meat, which is moderately coarse in 
fiber, and which as a result of the intermixing with fat has a marbled 
shiny appearance on its cut surface. The fat is white to whitish-yellow 
and firm. 

The meat and fat of fattened calves and fattened young cows up to an 
age of seven years appear similar to that of fattened steers. 

The meat of old milch cows shows, as a rule, a lighter coloration and 
coarser fibers ; the connective tissue stands out more prominently and is 
close in texture or flabby, and contains more moisture. The fat is yellow, 
even to an intensive lemon-yellow color, and appears less firm and inter- 
mixed in smaller amounts with the meat than in the subcutaneous tissues, 
mesentery, peritoneum, and kidney capsule. The odor of cow meat some- 
times reminds one of the odor of cow milk (Baranski). 

Young cattle possess a loose, fine-fibered meat of a pale to light 
brick-red color only slightly intermingled with fat. The fat is white and 
firm. 

In older bulls the meat is dark copper-red in color, coarse fibered, 
tough, poor in fat and dry. In large masses, and especially where the 
muscles are covered with a fascia, the meat has a light-blueish hue ; the 
fat is white. The dried surface of the meat of older bulls appears very 
dark and the butchers designate it as "black." The meat of young fat- 
tened bulls differs only slightly from that of fattened steers with the 
exception of showing coarser fibers. 

The disagreeable odor of the bull meat which was observed by Goltz, and 
which reminds one of the effluvium of the live bull, appears relatively quite rare. 
The subject of sexual odor of meat is further treated in Chap. VII, i. 

B, Veal 

The meat of calves slaughtered at an age from 2-4 weeks is generally 
pale, gray to grayish-red, has fine, somewhat tough fibers, and is not inter- 
mixed with fat. The consistency is from moderately firm to loose. The 
odor is specific ; in calves which have been slaughtered for a long period 
(old slaughter) it is slightly sour. The fat is reddish-yellow to white- 
yellow, and pure white, loose, and greasy. The bone marrow is pink-red. 
Older fattened calves show a darker, redder, tougher meat, which in the 
so-called "double loined calves or sturgeon calves," is poor in fat and dry. 



Peculiarities of the Meat from Various Animals 59 

Veal in general contains more water and gelatin-forming substances ; on 
the other hand it is poorer in muscle-albumen than beef. 

Concerning the meat of immature calves see Chap. VII. 

C. Mutton 

Mutton (sheep meat) distinguishes itself by the firm, dense, fine 
fibers and its dark-red color. Its consistence is moderately firm. The 
odor is specific, slightly ammoniacal, sometimes reminding one of the 
odor of a sheep stable. The muscles are not intermixed with fat. In 
fattened animals, however, there are rich deposits of fat between the 
groups of muscles, and especially in the subcutis and the kidney capsule. 
The fat (suet) is pure white, hard, firm, brittle, and has no odor. The 
bone marrow is firm and slightly red. 

D, Goat Meat 

Goat meat is in general paler than sheep meat. The fat and bone 
marrow simulate that of sheep. The fat is chiefly located in the kidney 
capsules, while in the subcutis it is only present in small quantities. The 
muscles also contain only a little fat. The odor of the meat and fat is 
peculiarly strong, reminding one of the odor of the living goat, and it is 
especially disagreeable and repulsive in this species. (See Chap. VII, i.) 

E, Pork 

In hogs, age, nutritive condition, and the particular body region influ- 
ence considerably the color of the meat, which appears whitish-gray, pale 
red, gray-red to dark red. The fibers are fine, the consistence soft to 
moderately firm, and the odor indefinable. It is considerably intermixed 
with fat, which also envelopes the larger groups of muscles. The fat is 
pure white, finely granular, and soft. The marrow of the bone is soft 
and pink-red. 

In boiling pork it becomes whitish-gray and is then much lighter than 
the meat of all other food animals. 

In fattening with corn the fat takes up a yellowish color, and in feeding fish a 
gray color. Feeding with acorns procures a more oily fat. Feeding fish gives the 
fat a fishy odor. 

In older sows kept for breeding, and stags (boars castrated after thej^ have 
matured), the m.eat is dark red, poor in fat, and firm. 

The odor of the meat from boars and cryptorchids is more or less repulsive, 
reminding one of urine. It is frequently perceptible on the fresh meat, but some- 
times it appears only in cooking or roasting it. (See Chap. VII, i.) 

F, Horse Meat 

Horse meat is conspicuous through its dark-red or even brown color. 
When exposed to the air it has a blueish luster, and even becoines blackish- 
red to black. The fibers are very fine, the consistency firm, and fascias are 



6o Chap. II. Morphology and Chemistry of Principal Tissues, etc. 

very prominent. There is no intermixing of fat in the muscles. The odor 
is peculiar, sweet, and almost repulsive. Fat is soft, oily, and light gold 
to dark yellow in color, but in well-nourished horses it is whiter and 
firmer. Bone marrow is wax yellow, greasy, and soft, but becomes stif- 
fened in the air. 

G, Dog Meat 

Generally the meat of dogs is dark red, firm fibered, and only 
slightly intermixed with fat, which occurs chiefly between the groups of 
the muscles and in the subcutis. The consistence of the meat is soft and 
smeary; the odor is disagreeably repulsive. The color of the fat is white 
to white-gray, and its consistence oily and greasy. 

H, Rabbit Meat 

The meat of rabbits distinguishes itself through its pale-red, gray- 
red, and gray color. The fibers are fine ; the fat in the muscles is absent, 
and the consistence loose. The fat is whitish-yellow, and is principally 
confined to the body cavities. 

J. Poultry Meat 

The muscular tissues of fowls are firm, fine-fibered, and without inter- 
mixing with fat. The color of the preponderating meat is pale ; however, 
there are also red muscles. Generally the meat of chickens, capons, and 
turkeys is called white, while that of geese, ducks, and pigeons is consid- 
ered as dark. The consistency is principally firm and the alkalinity sub- 
sists after slaughter for a long time (Postolka and Toscano). Odor and 
taste vary in accordance with the species and feeding. Fat content of the 
muscles proper is very small, with the exception of the fattened fowl. 
The fat is very variable in its consistency, color, and odor ; generally, 
however, it is soft and oily. In chemical composition (page 40), the meat 
of fowls contains little lime-forming substances, but considerable albumen. 

K, Meat of Game 

In general the characteristics of the flesh of fowls may be applied to 
the meat of game, but the color is always darker, shading from red to 
brownish-red. Odor and taste of the meat are peculiar to each kind of 
game. Meat of animals which were exhausted in chasing before death, 
or which were injured by shot and which had to endure a long agony, is 
said to taste bitter : moreover, the greater contents of blood in the meat 
of game should be considered. This, however, apparently does not influ- 
ence its keeping qualities to any extent, although such is the case with 
the meat of other animals. 



Peculiarities of the Meat from Various Animals 6i 

Regarding its chemical composition (page 40), what was said 
about the meat of fowls applies to the meat of game. 

L. Fish Meat 

The color of fish meat is white; only few fish have red meat (salmon, 
trout). The structure is peculiar, inasmuch as the entire muscular mass 
of each side of the fish consists of a single muscle plate (side muscle), 
which is divided by a long furrow into a dorsal and ventral part. Each 
side muscle consists of a large number of muscle plates (myomeren), 
which are separated by thin, connective tissue membranes, and which easily 
fall apart, especially in boiling. Nothing can be said of importance 
Tegarding the odor and taste, which principally depend on the consist- 
ency of the fat. The latter, however, is principally influenced by the food 
of the fish. Fish of prey have a better tasting meat than those which seek 
their food in the mud. In the same way the season, especially the spawn- 
ing period, influences the taste of the meat not inconsiderably. According 
to the examination of Lichtenfelt regarding the periodical changes of the 
consistence of meat of various kinds of fish, he found that during the 
spawning period the albumen diminishes in the side body muscles in 
female animals from 17.5 per cent, to 13.3 per cent., and in males from 
1 7.9- 1 9.0 per cent, to 13- 14.3 per cent. In a still larger degree the fat 
contents of the muscles decrease. The fat, when present, is finely dis- 
tributed in the meat. 

In chemical composition the fish meat contains a larger quantity of 
water than that of mammals. This, however, is considerably reduced in 
fish which are rich in fat to the advantage of the fat contents (eel meat 
55-60 per cent, of water). Of the nitrogenous constituents, the extractive 
and glue-forming substances amouni to one-third. The supposition that 
fish meat is not as satiating as other meat appears to be contradicted by 
Rosenfeld's investigations. 

Regarding the poisonous effects of some fish, see Chap. IX, 2. 

M, Meat of Crustaceans and Mollusks 

In these animals the muscles are white or white-gray. Consistence, 
odor, and taste vary greatly. There is a remarkably slight amount of fat 
present. Regarding the chemical composition see page 41. 

N, Meat of Reptiles and Amphibians 

The meat of frogs and turtles is always of a pale color, usually white, 
yellowish-gray, yellowish or yellowish-red. Fat content is limited and 
slight. Regarding the chemical composition, see page 41. 



62 Chap. II. Morphology and Chemistry of Principal Tissues, etc. 



3. Fraudulent Substitutions of Meat and Their Recognition 

In the handling of meats and the preparation of meat- food products 
attempts are sometimes made to substitute meat of a lesser quahty for that 
of higher quality. To prove these fraudulent actions frequently causes 
the expert considerable trouble, and not infrequently is this altogether 
impossible, especially in prepared meat-food products. 

If there are bones present in the suspected meat, they should be taken 
for comparison, and further all characteristic peculiarities of the meat and 
fat, which have been already described for the individual species of ani- 
mals, should be considered. Relative to the manifold differences in the 
skeleton, reference should be made to the text-books on comparative anat- 
omy of the domestic animals. For distinguishing the various kinds of 
meats from a scientific standpoint the 

Biological Method 

deserves the greatest consideration. The method is based on the forma- 
tion of precipitins in the blood serums of animals (for instance, rabbits), 
which received for a certain time intraperitoneally, blood serum of meat 
juice of other animals (for instance, of horses). If, then, such blood 
serum (of rabbits) is added to the blood serum or meat-juice of the 
animal (in this case to horse blood serum), of which the blood serum 
served in the preparatory treatment of the animal (rabbit), a cloudiness 
will develop in the latter which results in a precipitate. This reaction 
appears only with the blood serum or meat- juice of the same kind of ani- 
mal which was employed for the preparatory treatment, and from which 
the serum which supplies the precipitating serum originated. The reaction 
is, therefore, a specific precipitation. 

The method was first employed by Uhlenhuth, Wassermann, and 
Schiitze for the recognition of human blood, and later was improved by 
Jess, Uhlenhuth, Missner and Herbst, Notel, v. Rigler, Groning, Borsch- 
mann, and others ibr use on meats. The biological method can not only 
be applied on fresh meat, but also on dried, pickled, and salt meat as well 
as for distinguishing meat mixtures, bones, and viscera. On the other 
hand, the method does not prove satisfactory for the differentiation of 
cooked meats. For distinguishing horse meat from beef the biological 
method is successful, but whether the application of the same will prove 
unobjectionable on the meat of other animals, which zoologically are in 
closer relation, is yet to be determined. The production of the sera and 
meat extracts and the procedure of the reaction are accompanied by 
various difficulties and require certain precautions. Therefore the appli- 
cation of the biological method presumes great skill, and is accordingly 



Fraudulent Substitutions of Meat and Their Recognition 63 

adapted only for scientific institutions and for larger meat-inspection 
bureaus conducted by veterinarians. Owing to the technique and the 
numerous details to be considered in connection with the test, the reader 
must be referred to the original works for a full description. Whether 
Neisser-Sachs' so-called "diverting method" may also be utilized in the 
differentiation of the various kinds of meat is yet to be determined. 

Other differentiating indications between the species which occa- 
sionally may appear for comparison are described in the following : 

A, Sheep and Goat 

In comparing the whole slaughtered carcass, the goat appears to have 
longer bones, especially in the flank than the sheep. The latter has a 
round back and a fleshy rounded croup, while the goat manifests a sharp 
back and a sloping croup. Goats usually have a shorter tail (12 caudal 
vertebrae) than sheep (18-24 caudal vertebrae) ; however, they are also 
short-tailed (12-16 caudal vertebrae) and tailless breeds of sheep (3 cau- 
dal vertebrae). The thorax of the goat is flat, that of the sheep is barrel- 
shaped. On the somewhat sticky surface of the slaughtered goat fre- 
quently goat hairs are found adhering ; the skin muscles of goats are 
darker than those of the sheep. The subcutis of goats contains less fat 
and also the muscles are not enveloped in fat to the extent they are in 
sheep. The meat has a characteristic odor, especially pronounced 
in males. Of the skeleton peculiarities it should be mentioned that 
all bones of the goats in general have a more slender form than 
sheep bones. In the skull of the goat the external lachrymal notch is 
absent while it is present in sheep. The spinal processes of the cervical 
vertebrae are, according to Biitzler, long, pointed, and sharp-edged in the 
goat, while in the sheep they are broad and dull. Sacral vertebrae are at 
least 4 in the goat, never 3, as occasionally occurs in sheep. The lateral 
sacral borders of the goat are thin and sharp ; in the sheep they are thick- 
ened in the form of rolls. Pelvic opening is considerably smaller in the 
goat than in the sheep. The scapula in the sheep is broad and short ; the 
well-developed spine has in the center a round thickening which is bent 
backwards in a bow. In goats the scapular spine is flat and straight, the 
neck of the scapula is distinctly outlined. The tibia in the sheep is strongly 
turned spirally, and its posterior surface is concave. The bones of the 
goat are, according to LohofT, harder and more brittle than the bones of 
the sheep. 

6, Sheep, Goat, and Deer 

The conformation of the bones in deer is always more slender and 
neater than in the sheep or goat. The cervical vertebrae of deer are longer 
than in sheep and goat compared to the size of the animals. The spinal 
processes of the dorsal vertebrae of the deer are turned forward, beginning 



64 Chap. II. Morphology and Chemistry of Principal Tissues, etc. 

at the third; on the lumbar vertebrae they are elongated forward in the 
form of a sharp hook, which in sheep is considerably smaller. In the scap- 
ula of the deer the acromion is elongated into a sharp point, which is 
directed ventrally ; it is absent in the sheep and goat, or is considerably 
smaller. The radio-ulnar arch which forms an oval opening in the sheep 
and goat is very long in the deer. The lachrymal bone in the deer is also 
deeply grooved, but its surface appears incomplete. In the deer the sub- 
cutaneous layer of fat is not as well developed as in the sheep ; the meat is 
poor in fat and possesses the odor of venison, which is to be distinguished 
from the odor of sheep. 

Smith pointed out the difference between the goat hair and deer hair. In the 
first the conical substance in the microscopical picture is as broad as the marrow 
Fubstance, while deer hair is characterized by the remarkable development of the 
marrow substance. The cortical layer in deer hair is almost unrecognizable, so that 
the hair appears to be a cylinder entirely made up of polyhedral cells. The hair of 
elk and chamois has also a similar structure. 

According to the description of Stadies, the kidneys of deer can only be posi- 
tively distinguished from those of the sheep with the aid of an anatomical fluid 
injected into the pelvis of the kidneys. The pelvis of the kidney is injected with a 
solution of celloidin, rosin, and turpentine in alcoholic ether ; after the stiffening of 
the solution the kidney is placed into hydrochloric acid, which in a few days com- 
pletely destroys the kidney substance. The cast from the pelvis of the deer kidney 
is small and oval without any bulgings, while that from the pelvis of sheep shows 
a long stretched runner. 

C, Hog and Dog 

Besides the manifold differences in the skeleton, which are described 
in the anatomies, it may be also noted that the color of dog meat is much 
darker than hog meat, and this difference can be especially observed in the 
cooked flesh. (See page 59.) 

The muscles of dog meat are more smeary and the fat is more oily 
than in the hog ; the odor is entirely different. 

D, Rabbit (Hare) and Cat 

The following differences in the skeleton are especially to be men- 
tioned : The lateral processes of the lumbar vertebrae which are directed 
forward terminate in the rabbit (Fig. 34) in two extensions, of which one 
is directed forward the other backward ; in the cat they terminate in a 
point. The body of the first three lumbar vertebrse in the rabbit contains 
thorn-shaped ventral processes (Fig. 34 a). The ribs of the rabbit are flat 
and broad ; those of the cat are rounded. On the scapula of the rabbit the 
acromion turns around posteriorly and terminates in a long point, which 
is directed backward (Fig. 37). Radius and ulna are completely sepa- 
rated in the cat (Fig. 35) ; in the Leporides they are united (Fig. 36). On 
the humerus of the cat is an elongated fissure over the median condyle 



Fraudulent Substitutes of Meat and Their Recognition 



65 



of the distal end (Fig. 39). The femur of the rabbit (Fig. 41) contains 
below the trochanter major, a specially strong smaller trochanter, which 
is absent in the cat (Fig. 42). Tibia and fibula are complete in the cat 
(Fig. 43) ; in the rabbit (-Fig. 44), they are only separated in the upper 

half. 

The whole carcass of the cat can be immediately recognized by its 
head, penis bone, and the tail, and for these reasons, if offered for sale. 





Fig. zi 



Fig. 35 



Fig. 36 




Fig. 34. Lumbar vertebrae, a ventral spinal processes. 
Fig. 35. Right forearm of the cat, inside view. 
Fig. 36. Right forearm of the rabbit, inside view. 
Fig. 37. Right scapula of the rabbit. 
Fig. 38. Right scapula of the cat. 

these parts are always removed on the slaughtered animal. Rabbits gen- 
erally have the shot wounds, but these are naturally absent in the slaught- 
ered domesticated rabbits. The meat of the cat is paler than rabbit meat ; 
the fat of the cat appears whitish in contrast to rabbit fat, which is honey- 
yellow. 

E, Hare and Rabbit 

The cervical vertebrae in the hare are, according to Lesbre, shorter than those 
of the rabbit. The spinal processes of the dorsal vertebras in the rabbit are slightlj' 
turned backward, and they do not have the hook-shaped extensions which are 
6 



66 Chap. II. ^lorpholog}- and ChemistTA' of Principal Tissues, etc. 

present in the hare. The well-marked bifurcations of the ends of the lateral proc- 
esses of the lumbar vertebrse in the hare is only percepdble on the first lumbar 
vertebra of the rabbit. The sacrum of the hare consists of fotu" united vertebrae; 
the spinal processes are all united. In the rabbit the sacrum is narrower than in 
the hare. The ribs and scapula are longer in the hare than in the rabbit. The 
spine of the scapula lajs considerably nearer to the anterior border of this bone 
in the rabbit The acromion of the hare termiuates suddenly at the attachment of 
the processus hamatus, while in the rabbit it continues for 3-5 mm- in a long point 
(Fig. 37). Upper arm is larger in the hare than in the rabbit. The radius is longer 
in the hare than in the rabbit: the middle part is cylindrical in the latter, while in 





Fig. 39 Fig. 40 Fig. 41 Fig. 42 Fig. 43 Fig. 44 

Fig- 39- Right humerus of the cat, front view. 

Fig. 40. Right humerus of the rabbit. 

Fig. 41. Right femur of the rabbit, front and inside ^-iew. 

Fig. S2. Right femur of the cat. 

Fig. 43. Right tibia and fibula of the cat, front %-iew. 

Fig. 44- Right tibia and fibula of the rabbit. 

the former it is considerably flattened. The ulna of the hare becomes gradually 
thinner at the distal end, and proceeds aknost entirely behind the volar surface of 
the radius: in the rabbit on the other hand, it is well developed in the entire length, 
and lays almost completely on the lateral surface of the radius. With the hind legs 
there is no perceptible difference noticeable. 

F, Cattle and Horses 

Regarding the entire quarters, in the horse the length of the extremi- 
ties and that of the thorax appear in marked contrast to that of cattle, 
while in the latter, on the other hand, the pelvis is longer than that of the 



Fraudulent Substitutions of Meat and Their Recognition 67 

horse. The characteristics of the meat were discussed on page 57. The 
numerous osteological differences must be left unconsidered. Seldom is 
it necessary to pass an opinion on large pieces of meat; it is much more 
frequently necessary to determine the presence of horse meat which has 
been prepared for food, especially in sausage. Until a few years ago it 
was impossible to prove this with any degree of positiveness. However, 
the work of Niebel can be credited with giving a scientific method for an 
accurate test for horse meat. Niebel constantly found in horse meat con- 
siderable quantities of glycogen (0.373-1.072 per cent.), the smallest 
amount of which surpasses the quantity found in the meat of other 
animals.^ 

For the demonstration of glycogen Niebel employed Briicke's method with 
Kiilz's modification, which is also prescribed wilh some changes by the regulations 
of the imperial meat-inspection law for the horse-meat test. 

It is certain that superior to the Briicke-Kiilz's method are those of Pflugler and 
Pfliigler-Nerking, by which Martin has proved that the results gave from 22-25 
per cent, higher values than the former. Besides it was found by Frassi, Hefel- 
mann, and Mautz and others, that the glycogen content of the muscles of the horse 
varies considerably in the various parts of the body ; the smallest quantity of gly- 
cogen was always found in the muscles of mastication (0.047-0.24 per cent.) while 
in the back and thigh muscles it was found as high as 10.8 per cent, (in the dry 
substance free from fat). 

Further Xiebel found that the glycogen in the horse is converted 
after a certain time into grape sugar. In such cases he established the 
contents of the sugar in horse meat by a special method with the aid of 
Fehling's solution. In this connection it must also be remembered that 
meat, and especially meat products, contains reductive substances, i. e., 
creatinin ; further that the quantity of carbohydrates is increased in the 
sausage by the addition of spices, also by starch flour which is sometimes 
deliberately added to the substance of certain sausages. If there is no 
addition of carbohydrates made, and it is determined by Niebel's compara- 
tive test that the meat or sausage contains at least i per cent, carbohydrate, 
calculated on the basis of the fat- free dry substance, then it is evident 
that the product contains horse meat. In the horse-meat sausages exam- 
ined, the confirmed quantity of carbohydrates exceeded 11 times the maxi- 
mum content of carbohydrates of ordinary sausage. 

It is known that the meat of dogs, cats, fetuses, and starved calves 
contains also a large amount of glycogen. The first two species of ani- 
mals do not come under consideration in connection with falsification of 



1 This statement of Niebel cannot be sustained, according to Rusche. 
- The quantitative glycogen analysis in connection with Niebel's determining 
method is exact, according to Rusche. 



68 Chap. II. Morphology and Chemistry of Principal Tissues etc. 

sausage, etc., and with the addition of larger quantities of fetal or starved 
calf meat the sausages have not the characteristic brown-red color which 
is given to them by the presence of horse meat. Niebel attaches so much 
importance to the brown-red color that he considers the presence of horse 
meat established if, besides the determination of glycogen, the brown-red 
color of the material is present. While the observations of Niebel have 
been confirmed by other investigators, nevertheless it has been established 
by Nerking, Pfliiger, and Rusche, that the meat of well-nourished cattle 
may contain in the fresh state the same quantity of glycogen as horse meat, 
and Pfliiger also determined that meat from horses in poor nutritive con- 
dition may occasionally be free from glycogen or have only traces of it. 
In consequence of these findings and also on account of the high content 
of glycogen in fetuses and immature calves, it is necessary to employ a 
supplemental method besides the glycogen test for the positive determina- 
tion of the presence of horse meat, and for these reasons only the biological 
test can be accepted as positive. 

For the quick determination of horse meat in a meat product, Brauti- 
gam and Edelmann successfully tried and adopted a method for diagnostic 
purposes, which is based on Niebel's investigations and which depends on 
the characteristic color reaction of glycogen with iodine as it was first 
described by Claude Bernard. The method is as follows : 

1. A small quantity of the meat (50 g.) to be examined is finely cut and 
boiled in four times its volume of water for one hour, and the resulting bouillon is 
treated as described in 4 and 5. 

2. To this mass caustic potash dissolved in the same quantity of water is 
added (3 per cent, of the original quantity of meat) and this is further heated over 
a water bath until the muscle fibers fall apart. 

3. The cooked mass is then boiled down to the weight of the original quantity 
of meat and filtered. 

4. After complete cooling this meat solution is carefully mixed with equal 
parts of diluted nitric acid, in order to precipitate most of the albuminoids and for 
decolorization and it is then again filtered. 

5. This filtrate (or the bouillon, which was obtained under i, and which was 
also acidulated with dilute nitric acid and filtered) is then treated with iodine water, 
which is carefully poured on the side of the test tube to the filtrate. In this way 
at the contact of the solutions in the presence of horse meat, a burgundy red zone 
forms, the width and intensity of which depend on the quantity of horse meat in 
the examined sample — that is, on the quantity of glycogen in the meat. 

This method is successful in proving qualitatively the presence of 
glycogen even in mixtures which contained only 5 per cent, of horse meat. 
The color reaction must be distinct, and in order to avoid any possible 
errors it should be carried out by daylight. The principal requirement in 
the execution of this test is the absence of starch, and for this reason a 
small quantity of the meat should be first tested by boiling and the addi- 



Fraudulent Substitutions of Meat and Their Recognition 69 

tion of iodine or Lugol's solution. Should the sample contain starch, 
then the following modification is to be applied : 

1. The glycogen which might be present in the meat product is exclusively 
extracted by boiling the sample of meat to which the necessary quantity of water 
has been added in a water bath, which requires several hours. 

2. The filtered extract is very carefully reduced on the water bath to one-third 
of the original quantity of the meat. 

3. To this concentrated juice two or three times its volume of concentrated 
acetic acid is added, which precipitates the starch (frequently only after a few 
hours). 

It has not yet been determined whether the method recommended by Baur and 
Polenske is suitable for the separation of starch and glycogen through the precipi- 
tation with a saturated ammonium sulphate solution. 

• 4. The liquid containing the precipitate is carefully filtered through a double 
or three-folded filter, and to a small quantity of the filtrate iodine is added for the 
starch test. Should some starch still be present, the addition of acetic acid must 
be repeated and the material again filtered. 

5. To the solution which does not contain any starch, iodine water may be 
directly but carefully poured for the glycogen test. But as the extract becomes 
diluted two or three times its volume through the addition of acetic acid, it becomes 
advisable in case of negative results : 

6. To precipitate the presumptive glycogen by the addition of alcohol to ten or 
twelve times its volume. 

7. The cloudy alcoholic solution is filtered through as small a filter as 
possible. 

8. The traces of glycogen, which might have been retained in the filter, are 
dissolved with a few drops of hot water, and with water acidified with acetic acid 
and the solution which thus passes through is then carefully tested with iodine water 
for glycogen. 

The entire procedure of this examination of products containing 
starch must be carefully executed in every part, owing to the danger of 
the formation of dextrin, which might be mistaken for glycogen. A 
chemical separation of dextrin from glycogen has not yet been accom- 
plished. Further information must be obtained from the original works 
on the subject. 

It should be especially emphasized that the method of Edelmann- 
Brautigam should be preferably used for diagnostic purposes. In general 
work this method should be applied for the demonstration of the presence 
of glycogen in the suspected meat product, and, if necessary, through a 
quantitative chemical analysis, the quantity of the glycogen should be 
determined in the product. 

The published modification of Edelmann-Brautigam's method by 
Courtroy and Coreman cannot be recommended. 

Bastien advises the following simplification of Edelmann-Brautigam's 
method for determining glycogen in sausages : 

20 g. of the sausage to be examined is chopped and boiled for about one hour, 
until the quantity is reduced to 30 c. c. After cooling, it is filtered and to 10 c. c. of 



70 Chap. II. Morphology and Chemistry of Principal Tissues, etc. 

the filtrate 2-5 drops of iodine water is added. A red-violet coloration proves the 
presence of horse meat, even if the sausage contains only 5 per cent, of such meat. 
The coloration disappears quickly, therefore the reagent must be added carefully in 
order not to obtain a red-brown coloration. 

Should the sample of sausage contain starch also, the above-mentioned boiled 
mass is first decanted, and according to the quantity of starch present, i or 2 volumes 
of acetic acid is added. After 5 minutes it is filtered, and 10 c. c. of the filtrate is 
taken for the same iodine test as described above. 

Lebbien also recommends a new method for the quantitative determination of 
glycogen, which, however, must first be proved satisfactorily in practice. This 
method is principally adapted for experts in chemistry. 

Hasterlik aimed to utilize the large quantity of iodine which the horse fat 
contains for a distinguishing sign. The latter amounts in the intermuscular horse 
fat to 79.71-85.87, compared with 49.74-58.45 in beef fat. In mixtures of these fats 
or with lard the quantity of the iodine changes to such an extent that the method 
cannot claim an absolute reliability. The method itself is recently said to have 
given good satisfaction with meats prepared by cooking. 

Bremer does not accept such a high content of iodine in the fat of the horse 
as Hasterlik, and advises Niebel's method as a supplementary examination. 

Nussberger recommends the Zeiss refractometer for the determination of horse 
fat (Chap. IX). 

This method is also prescribed by the regulations of the imperial meat-inspec- 
tion law. 

All these methods should be submitted at first to expert chemists. 

G, Cattle and Deer 

The muscle fibers of beef are coarser than those of deer, and the bones are 
also stronger. Deer meat is darker than beef, and is not so mottled with fat. The 
fat- of deer appears much like mutton fat; it is harder and more brittle than 
beef fat. 

H. Cattle and Buffalo 

Generally the fresh buffalo is darker (more reddish-brown) ; the fibers 
are coarser and looser in the structure than beef. The odor of buffalo meat and 
fat resembles that of musk, and if boiled in strong acidified (sulphuric acid) water 
it develops a disagreeable odor similar to that of cattle manure (Puntigam and 
Halusa). The cutaneous shoulder muscle of buffalo is only 3-5 fingers broad, while 
that of cattle is considerably broader. The fat of buffalo is strikingly white, and 
is dryer and less sticky than in cattle. The conformation of the bones of the 
buffalo is generally finer and the bones are more brittle. The pubic symphysis 
of the buffalo appears strikingly plain. 



IIL The Production, Preparation, and 
Conservation of Meat 

In the utilization of meat for human food it undergoes various proc- 
esses or preparations, and should it not be consumed within a certain 
period it must be conserved in order that it may be kept. 

1, Chopped Meat 

The production of chopped meat by means of cutting the flesh with 
a knife, cleaver, rocking-knife, or meat-grinder is the simplest method of 
preparation. For this purpose beef and pork are principally used, but 
veal is likewise utilized to a small extent. The short tendonous meat of 
the head, leg, and all other parts of the body, which does not find a ready 
sale in the butcher shop is thus worked up into a more salable product. 
Naturally fat is also added and chopped up with the meat in larger or 
smaller quantities. 

Chopped meat is consumed either raw, after flavoring with salt, pep- 
per, and onions, especially in northern and middle Germany, or is used for 
the preparation of meat sausage, meat balls, and various other dishes 
(German beefsteak, hamburger steak). 

In order that the chopped meat should retain the red muscular coloring matter, 
sulphurous acid and its salt are frequently added, which, however, do not retard all 
decomposition. 

Meyer examined the bacterial contents of chopped meat by sowings on gelatin 
plates and found 1,695,000 to 12,717,000 bacteria to i g. of meat. The number of 
bacteria was not influenced by the usual additions of preservative salts. 

2. Sausage 

By sausage is understood a mixture of meat which is placed into a 
sausage covering. For coverings the intestines are principally employed, 
the serous membrane being inverted (see page 34) ; besides the esophagus 
of cattle, the stomach of hogs and the urinary bladder of various food 
animals are also used. Lately the so-called artificial parchment is also 
used as a cover or casing. 

The varieties of sausages and their preparations vary considerably in 
the different countries. This applies especially to those varieties of sau- 
sages to which larger quantities of vegetable ingredients are added. The 
principal ingredients of sausage are always muscle meat and fat, besides 

71 



72 Chap. III. Production, Preparation, and Conservation of Meat 

blood, heart, tongue, connective tissue, hog skin, Hver, and various other 
parts of the viscera. In order to make the sausage tasty, spices (salt, 
saltpeter, sugar, pepper, paprika, caraway, marjoram, garlic, onions, cori- 
ander, cinnamon, clove, truffle, sardelle, etc.) are added to the animal 
ingredients. Many varieties of sausages are prepared for an early 
(immediate) consumption; in order to increase the keeping qualities of 
sausage they are either smoked only or they are at first boiled and then 
smoked. 

In accordance with the composition of the filling the following varie- 
ties of sausages may be distinguished : 

A. Meat Sausages 

The meat sausage consists chiefly of chopped beef, pork, or veal. For 
commercial purposes they are divided into : 

1. Fresh sausage and sausage for boiling or scalding, which are 
sold under various names. 

2. Sausages of keeping qualities, which are known as cervelat, 
summer sausage, etc. 

Since fresh sausage or sausage for boiling are destined for early con- 
sumption, they do not contain any preservatives, and at most they might 
be slightly smoked in order to improve the taste. The sausages with keep- 
ing qualities, on the other hand, should keep for a longer period. This 
is accomplished by the reduction of the contents of water in the filling by 
drying and by smoking. The addition of water to sausage filling of fresh 
sausage or those for boiling or scalding is usual and positively necessary 
when the mass is to be filled in the narrow casings. The absorbing power 
possessed by sausages for water (see page 38) depends on the binding 
quality of the meat. The higher or lower binding quality of the meat 
influences the consistence of the sausage mass inside of the covering and 
therefore the slicing of the sausage as well as the appearance of the cut 
surface. The quantity of the added water, which amounts to about 24 per 
cent., according to Hofmann, is of no special importance, since through 
the hot smoking of boiled sausages and others, not only the added water 
is lost, but frequently even a portion of the natural content of water of 
the meat. For this reason, and also on account of the taste of the public 
demanding juicy, well-stuffed sausages, the addition of water to the filling 
of this variety of sausages cannot be considered as an adulteration. 

The addition of flour to sausage filling, which for a time had assumed 
considerable proportions, was declared by the butchers to be an absolute 
necessity, on account of the meat losing its binding qualities through the 
fattening foods used by the hog raisers. This, however, cannot be con- 
firmed as there are places where the addition of flour is never practiced, 
yet they produce a splendid meat sausage. If the addition of flour is kept 



Sausage 73 

within a certain limit (about 2 per cent.), it does not necessarily indicate 
in boiled or scalded sausages a deterioration, as it thickens the juice of 
the sausage and makes the sausage more palatable. However, the addi- 
tion of flour is only permissible where the consumers are aware of that 
practice. In sausage with keeping qualities the addition of any quantity of 
flour means an adulteration. The supposition that the addition of flour 
to the sausage filling makes the absorption of a larger quantity of water 
possible is erroneous, as starch flour absorbs water only in boiling, and 
boiling water or prepared paste is not employed in the preparation of 
sausage. 

With the addition of mixtures of egg-albumen and tragacanth, the so-called 
'Jftlbumina," it is possible to produce a sausage filling consisting of 35 kg. meat and 
50 kg. water, with a content of only 3 per cent, of "albumina." Therefore such an 
addition must be considered as an aduheration. 

Although the coloring of the sausage filling is prohibited for the German 
Empire (see also B. A. I. Order 150, Reg. 22, Sees, i and 2) by the imperial 
decree of February 16, 1902, it should, however, find brief mention here. The 
coloring, which was frequently employed in the production of sausages of keeping 
qualities, was principally practiced to prevent the color of the filling turning gray 
and especially in order to prevent this occurrence on the cut surfaces. The turn- 
ing of the color is due to a change of the muscle coloring matter into a colorless 
modification, which does not necessarily indicate a simultaneous spoiling of the 
muscle substance. The causes for the sausage turning gray have not yet been 
satisfactorily established. According to Meyer, this occurs through a loss of salt 
in the sausage filling, which progresses gradually toward the center by means of 
osmosis, and naturally may soon affect the cut surface uniformly, thereby turning 
it gray. It is possible that an insufficient nitrite formation from the saltpeter of 
the sausage filling might play a part in the change of the color, which, as it has 
been indicated by K. B. Lehmann and Kalbrenner, changes the hemoglobin into a 
new red blood coloring derivative (the hemorrhodin). (See also page 96). Glage 
explains the turning gray of the sausage to the action of the volatile sulphur com- 
pound in the meat (N2S) in combination with oxygen on the muscle coloring 
matter. 

As coloring matter there is employed most frequently cochineal or the carmine 
which is derived from it. There are also employed numerous preparations with 
various names (karnit, albon-karnit, rubro-karnit, etc.), but coal-tar preparations 
as fuchsin, safranin, ponceau, rosalin, and eosin are seldom used. 

Through coloring, meat of a lesser value and that which contains only a small 
amount of muscle coloring matter may be changed into better appearing meat, and 
the fat in the sausage may also be changed to such an extent that it simulates 
meat. 

The coloring of the casings (sausage cover) is not affected by the above-men- 
tioned prohibition. However, unwholesome stains (for instance korollin) should 
not be permitted to be used. 

[The use of coloring matters in the preparation of sausage is pro- 
hibited in the United States. This, however, applies only to the sausage 



74 Chap. III. Production, Preparation and Conservation of Meat 

filling, while for the casings coloring matters which are approved by the 
Secretary of Agriculture may be used. (See B. A. I. Order 150, Reg. 22, 
Sec. 2, Par. i.)] 

B> Blood Sausages 

The blood sausages are prepared from blood (as a rule, hog blood), 
mixed with small cubes of cooked fats and lean pork meat, heart, tongue, 
hog skin, lung, and spices. The meat ingredients, mixed with blood, are 
filled into casings and the sausages are boiled for the purpose of coagulat- 
ing the blood. This must be carefully accomplished and the larger the 
dimensions of the sausage and the more vegetable substance they contain 
the more attention they require. To insure the keeping qualities of 
the sausage they are smoked and are sold under the names of red-sausage, 
black-sausage, tongue-sausage. 

C. White Sausages 

These varieties of sausages, which are also called soft sausages on 
account of their consistency, are prepared from boiled and chopped vis- 
ceral parts, especially from the liver. Besides in these sausages are 
utilized the lungs, stomachs of ruminants, brains, finely cut pork and veal, 
with the addition of considerable quantities of rendered or cooked fat in 
cubes. The addition of the various kinds of spices makes these sausages 
especially tasteful, and are named accordingly (onion, charlotte, sardell, 
truffle, and liver sausage, etc.) . After cooking they are consumed either in a 
fresh or smoked state. The light color of the cooked ingredients of the 
sausage gives the cut surface the gray to whitish color (white sausage). 

Similar to these varieties of sausage is the preparation and consistency of most 
of the commercially known meat pastes (goose liver, fowl, etc.), in which the 
liver is the principal constituent. 

D, Jelly Sausages 

They are prepared from those parts of the body which are rich in 
connective tissue, as skin and head of hogs, head and feet with the skin 
of calves, the muzzle of cattle, etc., with the addition of fat and lean meat, 
as well as spices. The cooked or scalded meat and other ingredients are 
cut and filled, as a rule, into a stomach or bladder of a hog, and the volu- 
minous sausages are then thoroughly boiled. In this process jelly forms 
inside of the sausage, which after cooling coagulates, and thereby binds 
the ingredients of the sausage. In order that the binding should be as 
uniforai as possible, and that the sausage should attain the desired firm- 
ness and should slice well, it is pressed until completely cooled. The 
jelly sausage is mostly consumed in the fresh state, but also may be 



Culinary Preparation of the Meat 75 

smoked to increase its keeping qualities. It is known under the names, 
pressed hogs' head, pressed sack, pressed sausage. 

E, Sausages \yith Larger Quantities of Vegetable Matter 

The animal basic substances of these sausages are usually blood with 
fat or lean pork meat, or a white sausage filling. To these are added, 
besides various spices, larger quantities of vegetable substances, which 
are rich in carbohydrates, as groats, bread, boiled rice, rolls, boiled pota- 
toes, corinths, raisins, sugar, etc. The filled sausages for which the 
stomach or bladder of hogs are frequently used as containers, are cooked 
and consumed when fresh, or they may be preserved by smoking. This 
Jkind of sausage is principally prepared for the household, and, therefore, 
almost every locality has its own characteristic sausage belonging to this 
group. 

3, Culinary Preparation of the Meat 

The culinary preparation should render the meat tasteful and more 
tender, but it is not necessarily made more digestible. 

Considering the digestibility of culinary prepared meat, Popoff established the 
following scale of values : 

If of raw beef, loo parts are digested, then the digestibility of boiled beef 
is 83.4 parts; of smoked beef is 71 parts; of smoked and boiled beef is 60 parts. 

Different results were obtained by Lebbin, who found that the nutritive value 
stands the highest in smoked beef; this is followed in a gradual decline by roasted 
meat, pickled meat, raw chopped meat, soup meat, and broiled meat. 

A. H. Chittenden and W. Commins found the following results on the digesti- 
bility of the various kind of meats through artificial gastric juice. If the digesti- 
bility of beef is placed at 100, then 

Veal . . . . = 94.89% Trout . . . = 78.45% 



= 71-82% 
= 82.50% 

= 82.34% 
= 87.81% 

= 67.13% 
d be digested, that 



Mutton . . . =z 92.15% Eel . 

Lamb . . . ^ 87.93% Haddock . 

Fowl (white meat) . = 86.72% Herring 

Fowl (dark meat) . =1 84.42% Lobster 

Salmon . . . = 92.29% Crab . 

If under the same condition 100 per cent, of boiled beef wou 
of raw beef would amount to 142.38 per cent. 

The experiments with artificial gastric juice do not disclose the actual utili- 
zation of the meat in the body, especially the nitrogenous substances as the 
intestinal digestion completes that of the stomach. 

The tastefulness and tenderness of meat can be best accomplished in the 
kitchen, provided it has attained the required ripeness through which the developing 
lactic acid swells and loosens the connective tissue parts of the muscles. Such 
loosening may be also obtained by placing the meat into vinegar or milk. 

According to Sygoal, Schmidt-Nielson's investigations fish meat also undergoes 
a ripening process, and especially salted fish should be allowed to go through the 
process. Fish rich in fat as herring, salmon, trout, mackerel, and others ripen 



76 Chap. III. Production, Preparation, and Conservation of Meat 

even when in pickle, while in the salting of haddock and other lean fish the ripen- 
ing does not take place. The fish muscles contain enzymes the same as those of 
the mammals, which accomplish the splitting that represents the ripening process. 
The latter is brought on by autolysis. 

On the other hand, according to the investigation of Haldik, freshly slaugh- 
tered meat, with a suitable preparation (cooking in small pieces or stewing as 
gulash in small pieces), is usually just as tasty as ripened meat; however, in 
I'oasting it becomes very tough and unpalatable. 

A. Boiling 

To obtain a good meat broth through the boihng of meat the latter 
must set on the fire with cold water and boil slowly for 3-4 hours. But 
should it be desired to obtain boiled meat which is juicy, then the raw 
meat must be placed in boiling water, and the boiling heat must not be 
permitted to be reduced to any great extent. In this way there will soon 
form on the surface of the meat a coagulated layer, which prevents the 
juices from escaping. In consequence, only traces of muscle albumen pass 
into the water and they are manifested on the surface of the water in 
the form of a light coagulated scum. The heat enters the inside of the 
meat slowly and is indicated by the change of the red muscle coloring mat- 
ter to the familiar gray color of the meat, the change requiring a tempera- 
ture of at least 73° C. 

The reddening of the meat on the surface in boiling is, according to Kisskalt, 
the result of the presence of nitrous acid (N2O3) in the water in which the boil- 
ing takes place. Especially does the superficial reddening of the meat readily 
occur if fresh meat is boiled in bouillon, which is 12-24 hours old, as in such 
bouillon N2O5 reducing bacteria are remarkably propagated. But the N2O5 
enters the bouillon either from the water or from the customary soup vegetables 
which are used in its preparation. It is natural that meat which has been treated 
with sulphurous salts will also become carmin red on boiling. 

The unchanged red color of the salted or pickled meat which remains after 
boiling, is produced, according to Haldane, through the presence of nitric 
oxyhemo-chromogen, which is formed as a result of heating from nitric oxyhemo- 
globin, to which also the unboiled pickled meat owes its redness. 

B. Steaming 

In steaming or stewing it is best not to allow the meat to come in 
contact with water, but only steam heat. For this purpose, Papin's steam 
boiling pot is splendidly adapted. The stewing may also be accomplished 
by placing the meat in a boiling hot fat gravy, and this is constantly poured 
over the meat in order to obtain quickly a superficially coagulated layer, 
in order to retain the juice in the inside of the meat. As a result of this, 
well-stewed meat is generally more tasteful than boiled meat. 

C. Roasting 

It is aimed through the roasting of meat with the influence of high 
temperature (boiling fat), to produce quickly an outside coagulated layer 



Culinary Preparation of the Meat "]'] 

in order that as much as possible of the juice should be retained in the 
meat, and which will be replaced by a gradual infiltration of fat. The 
latter serves also to increase the juiciness and the tastefulness of the roast, 
while the other peculiarities may be attributed (Stutzer) to the penetra- 
tion of burning products and to the decomposition of the meat bases 
(kreatin, sarkin). If it is desired to prepare a so-called English roast the 
inside of which remains red, the inside temperature should not rise over 
63-65° C. 

D, Penetration of Meat by High Temperature 

As meat is a poor conductor of heat, high temperatures penetrate 
slowly into it. Bones in the meat increase conduction of heat. Concern- 
mg the penetration of heat into meat and meat products, the following 
investigations were made : 

Rupprecht established that in boiling blood sausage the inside temperature of 
the meat only reached 66° C, in jelly and tongue sausage 62.5°, and in pressed hog's 
stomach sausage only 58.70° C. The temperature of the inside of boiled ham he 
established at 65°, and the same for pork, when prepared the usual way cooked 
with vegetables. In frying meat balls, the inside temperature rises to 58.75°, and 
in quick frying of sausage only to 28.75° C. 

According to Kiichenmeister, in boiling larger pieces of meat for ^ an hour 
a temperature of only 55° C. is reached ; even after boiling for several hours it 
reaches only to 77-80° C. 

Leuckart states that in fried sausage and cutlets a temperature of 62.5° and 
in roast pork 75° C. is obtained, which, however, does not rise over 65° C, if the 
roast is prepared in the English style. 

Wolfhiigel and Hiippe established in their extensive experiments the following: 

1. Three thermometers inserted into a calf leg of 14.25 kg. after a roasting of 
3I/2 hours at a maximal temperature of 103° C, registered 71, 76, and 89° C. 

2. A similar experiment with a smoked ham of 4.5 kg. after 4 hours boiling in 
salt water with a maximal temperature of 102° C, showed 75, ']'7, and 78° C. 

3. The thermometer registered 93.96 and 98° C. in a fresh piece of veal 
weighing 3 kg. after three hours of roasting, in which the heat in the roasting 
oven reached 155° C. 

4. A temperature of 91 and 92° C. was obtained in the inside of a piece of 
beef weighing 3 kg., placed on the fire in boiling water and kept boiling for 2^ 
hours by which a temperature of 105° C. was reached in the water. 

5. In the same size piece of beef, but which was placed in a fire in cold 
water, the temperature registered 95 and 96° C. 

From these experiments it may be observed that the inside temperature of 
larger pieces of meat (over 3-4 kg.) even in boiling or roasting for several hours 
never reaches a temperature of 100° C. 

In the application of steam under pressure the temperature of the meat rises 
in a comparatively short time to over 100° C. 

E, Losses in Meat in Its Preparation in the Kitchen 

Losses in weight. In the culinary preparation the meat loses in the first place 
water. According to Voit, after boiling 100 g. of fresh meat it gives an average 
of 57 g. with about 40 per cent, dry substance. Forster established the content 



78 Chap. III. Production, Preparation, and Conservation of Meat 

of dry substance in boiled meat at 40-46 per cent; in roast meat at 30-40 per cent. 
Nothwang found that 100 g. of fresh meat give after boihng i, i^ and 2 hours, 
respectively, 68.g, 59.0, and 54.6 g; in stewing, 68.2, 48.0, and 48.2 g. 

In stewing or steaming the loss in weight is generally smaller; it fluctuates 
between 20-30 per cent. 

According to Peters, fish meat loses about 30.18 per cent, of its weight in stew- 
ing through the loss of water ; from the dry substances only 2 per cent, is lost. 

In roasting, the loss of weight depends on the degree of the roasting. 100 g. 
raw lean meat, according to Konig, produce 62-85 g. moderately roasted meat ; in 
thorough roasting, however, only 58 g. 

According to Grindley and Timothy Mojonnier, in the boiling of beef 3.25-12.67 
per cent, nitrogenous substances, 0.60-37.40 per cent, fat and 20.04 to 67.39 per cent, 
mineral constituents pass into the water from the original meat. In heating the 
meat with fat, on an average 2.15 per cent, nitrogenous substances and 3.07 per cent, 
ashes are absorbed by the fat, while the meat contains 2.2, times the quantity of fat as 
before the frying. 

Losses in nutritive substances. Still more important are the losses of extrac- 
tives and phosphoric acid. Nothwang found a loss of the first in boiling and stew- 
ing of 50-60 per cent., while of the latter about 35 per cent. In the roasting of 
meat the losses are somewhat slighter. 

In the boiling of pickled meat, which already suffers a loss of extractives and 
phosphoric acid in the pickling, according to Nothwang, it sustains a further loss 
of 23.4 per cent, of extractives and 19.05 per cent, of phosphoric acid; and in stew- 
ing these losses amount to 20.6 per cent, and 19.3 per cent. The combined losses of 
pickled meat in boiling and stewing amount to 65.6-67 per cent, in the extractives 
and 39.50-44.45 per cent, in phosphoric acid. 

4, Conserving of the Meat 

All meats contain certain preserving qualities which depend on con- 
ditions which are in the meat itself, and also on outside influences. To the 
first belong especially the blood and juice contents of the meat, and the 
health or disease as well as the exhaustion or rest of the animal before 
slaughter. The influence of the outside conditions on the meat depends 
principally on the activity of the putrefactive organisms. They reach the 
meat from the air or from soiling the meat, entering through the contami- 
nated portions of the surface, through the blood or lymph vessels, the 
excretory ducts of the glands, the connective tissue spaces, etc., into the 
inside of the meat. 

While all the requirements which favor the biologic conditions for the 
putrefactive bacteria (moisture, heat, deficiency in oxygen), reduce the 
preserving qualities of the meat, the latter will be increased, in cases of 
adverse conditions. And consequently all methods of conserving of meat 
are directed towards keeping away and diminishing the outside influences 
for the development of putrefactive bacteria. This purpose is obtained 
through physical or chemical agents and methods, or with the aid of both. 

Deichstetter and Emmerich recommended the use of sterile instruments in 
the slaughter of animals to as great an extent as is possible, to spray the surface 



Conserving of the Meat 79 

of the meat with glacial acetic acid, and for dry keeping it should be packed in 
sterilized sawdust, which has been saturated with sodium chloride; or if it is not 
to be transported, but allowed to hang, it should be wrapped with cloth saturated in 
glycerin-acetic acid. The method however is not satisfactory for keeping the meat 
for a long time in a fresh state. A better method is described by Deichstetter and 
Emmerich (page 90) which, combined with the previous method, if carefully 
carried out, enables the keeping of meat for weeks in a fresh state. 

A, Physical Conserving Methods 
1, Conserving by Extraction of Water 

(a) Drying of Meat 

• By this very old and simple method the meat is cut into strips and is 
dried quickly in the air. In this way the meat becomes so hard and tough 
that even a later soaking and cooking does not make it perfectly soft. In 
the meat trade this method is principally employed for the conserving of 
haddock. 

The meat preparation which is made in South America in a similar 
manner (chargue dulce), or by previous salting of the meat (chargue, 
tasajo, or jerked beef, Knuth), is not brought to Europe. 

Also the so-called "paprika bacon" may correctly belong here, inas- 
much as it represents fresh bacon rubbed with paprika and dried in the air. 

(b) Preparation of Meat Flour 

The meat flour which is prepared and sold in South America under the name 
"carne pura," or meat powder, is prepared from muscle, which is ground to pulp, 
then dried, milled to a fine powder, and mixed with a small quantity of salt. Tho 
preparation contains about 70 per cent, digestible nitrogen, but has a burned odor 
and taste. Because of this and its high price it has not found a general market. 

2, Conserving by Closing Out the Air 

This very old method, especially employed in the household, consists in pour- 
ing over the fresh, boiled, or roasted meat, liquid fats which again stiffen, thereby 
supplying the meat with an air-proof covering. For the wholesale trade in meats 
this method of preservation is useless. 

3. Enclosing in Airtight Containers 

(a) Sterilization by Boiling 

This method, which was discovered by Appert in 1809, led to the pro- 
duction of canned meat. In this procedure the meat is freed from bones, 
tendons, and fat, cut into small pieces, and then packed as fresh, pickled, or 
boiled meat into tin cans to which the covers are tightly soldered. The 



8o Chap. III. Production, Preparation, and Conservation of Meat 

cans are boiled for 3-4 hours under steam pressure, whereby the cans 
become swelled. According to Groning they are pricked in one place in 
order that the possible presence of surplus fat may be poured off and that 
the air might be extracted from the cans in the vacuum apparatus. The 
drawing in of the walls during this procedure is a positive indication that 
the cans are tight. After soldering of the small opening, the cans are 
again heated for a longer period ; as a result of the heat the meat will be 
sterilized. In cooling the cans they must be constantly moved, in order 
that the liquid ingredients should be uniformly distributed in the can. so 
that when they have coagulated into a jelly they might hold together firmly 
the pieces of meat in the container. 

In a similar way any kind of meat foods may be preserved with or 
without the addition of vegetables, and such can preserves form an 
unsparable proviant for the army maintenance in the field, ships, etc. 

The North American corned beef is prepared from pickled meat, which is boiled 
before pressing it into the can; however, the soldered cans are again subjected to 
boiling heat. In the same way is prepared the corned mutton and corned pork or 
corned brawn (pork meat). As the importation of canned meats into Germany has 
been prohibited since October i, 1900, the German can preserve industry has expe- 
rienced a considerable growth. 

[The canned-meat industry has assumed extensive proportions in the 
United States, and as the meat-inspection law of 1906 has control of these 
meat products a knowledge of the process of their preparation is deemed 
essential in connection with the supervision of the work. 

The preparation of canned meats differs not alone with the different 
kinds of meats to be preserved, but also the process may differ consider- 
ably in the various establishments. The differences, however, affect only 
some minor details, while the essential points of the process are the same. 
Inasmuch as the principal canned products are corned beef and potted 
meats, only the manufacture of these two will be described, all others 
being more or less similar to the one or the other of the processes. 

In canning potted meats the meat is boiled for about 40 minutes, after 
which it is hashed sufficiently fine, and immediately spread in shal- 
low pans or trays, which are placed in a retort and heated to 82° C. 
(180° F.) for 20 minutes and then emptied into receptacles from which 
the meat is conveyed into the stuffing machine. In the handling of the 
meats all delays should be avoided, and the cans should be filled as rapidly 
as possible. The tops of the cans, after they leave the stuffer, are cleaned 
off and the can is then capped. The caps are soldered immediately by 
passing the cans through an automatic soldering machine, and the vent in 
the cap is closed by hand soldering shortly after they pass through the 
machine. At this time the can receives the first inspection. If the can 



Conserving of the Meat 8i 

appears perfectly closed, it is passed directly to the process retort, where 
it remains for i^ to i^ hours (according- to the size of the can), under 
a pressure of seven pounds at iio° C. (233° F.). If inspection, however, 
shows that the can is imperfectly closed it is repaired before it is placed 
into the retort. 

Small cans are not passed through the vacuum machine before going 
to the process retort, as they are handled so rapidly that sufficient heat is 
retained in the product after being placed in the can and capped to estab- 
lish their own vacuum before the vent in the cap is closed. 

By establishing about 22" vacuum on the cans they collapse and 
distend again from internal pressure, after being placed in the processing 
retort, which pressure will develop some leaks and imperfections that 
were not detected on the first inspection. Therefore a second inspection is 
made as soon as the cans are taken from the processing retort, and any 
defective cans are repaired and once more passed through the retort. The 
treatment of cans by passing them through this retort for varying periods 
at various temperatures, according to the size of the can and the material 
under treatment, is known in the canning business by the term 
"processing." 

After the cans are sufficiently processed they are passed through a 
tub of hot lye for the purpose of removing all grease from the outside of 
the can. From the lye tub the cans pass under a spray of cold water, 
which causes them to collapse, after which they are removed into the label 
room. From this time any can showing an imperfect condition is rejected 
as unfit for food. (B. A. L Order 150, Reg. 23, sec 2.) 

In the canning of corned beef the meat is first boiled for one hour and 
then placed in the can, which is capped with the vent open. The can is 
then placed in the vacuum machine, under a 22" vacuum, and the vent 
soldered, or the vacuum may be also established by leaving the vent open 
and placing the can in the process retort for 45 minutes at 104.5° C. 
(220° F.), then removing the can and closing the vent immediately after it 
ceases blowing. Another method of establishing the vacuum is to seal 
the can and place it in a vat of boihng water for one hour, then it is 
removed and punctured with a sharp instrument and sealed as soon as 
the can stops blowing. If the can contains more than one pound of meat 
the time in the retort or boiling water is extended, according to the size 
of the can. If the vacuum has been established by the vacuum machine, 
the meat is then placed in the process retort for i hour and 45 minutes 
at 8 lb. pressure (111° C.) ; if the vacuum has been established in the 
retort, the can is returned to the retort as soon as the vent is closed and 
remains in the retort for ij^ hours at 7 lb. pressure (110° C). If again 
the vacuum has been established by the boiling water method the can is 
processed by returning to the boiling water for two hours, or by placing 

7 



82 Chap. III. Production, Preparation, and Conservation of Meat 

in the retort at 7 lb. pressure for lYz hours. The processing time given 
above appHes to i lb. cans. In larger sizes the procedure is the same 
only the time is increased about 15 minutes for each additional pound. 

In canning roast meat the meat is parboiled only for 30 minutes, and 
the water method is not used to establish a vacuum ; otherwise the method 
is the same as that for canning corned beef, but a higher temperature is 
maintained in the retort. After the processing is completed the method is 
similar to that described above for potted meats. 

The following imperfect conditions may occur in the preparation of 
canned meats : 

1. Leaker, a can in which air has gained admittance after the can has 
been supposedly hermetically closed. 

2. Slow leaker, the same as leaker only it develops in the course of 
time after the completion of the process. 

3. Sweller, a can in which the product is undergoing some putre- 
factive or fermentative change, which was unnoticeable at the time of the 
canning. 

4. Short process can, one which has not had the regular amount of 
processing for the cooking and sterlizing of the product. 

5. Collapsed can, one which has been collapsed by the application of 
too much vacuum. The condition occurs principally in cans which have 
not been properly stuffed. 

6. Overstuffed can, one which has been strained in packing, by forc- 
ing too much of the product into it. 

7. Strained can, one which has been overstuffed or strained by over- 
processing. 

8. Do-over can, one which springs a leak after the processing, but 
before entering the washing machine containing the lye water.] 

Judgment 

[All the defects of cans which are the result of mechanical imperfec- 
tions and which are noticed in the course of preparation do not render the 
meat unwholesome, provided such defects are corrected within 6 hours of 
the original sterilization. In all other cases the contents of the cans should 
be considered as unwholesome, and should be condemned in accordance 
with B. A. I. Order 150 Regulation 23, section 2.] 

(b) Replacing the Air zvith Oil 

Of the various methods employed to replace the air in the spaces 
between pieces of meat in cans, which includes pouring meat- jelly (gela- 
tin), meat-broth, and liquid-fat over the meat, only the use of oil has 



Conserving of the Meat 



83 



attained a practical importance. The latter is particularly employed with 
fish, which are cooked in oil, packed into tin boxes, and covered with oil 
(oil sardines). 

4, Preserving with Cold 

This oldest preserving method is at the same time the simplest, and 
best for the wholesale industry. Moreover, the quality of the meat is 
only slightly influenced by the loss of a small amount of the tasty sub- 
stances ; otherwise it ripens and becomes delicate and tender. The pre- 
serving action of the cold consists in checking the development of the 
causes of putrefaction. That numerous bacteria, especially the pathogenic 
forms, are not destroyed by low temperatures, was proved by the experi- 
rrf^nts of Forster, Pictet and Young Coleman and Mickendrick, Have- 
mann, and others. 

(a) Laying on Ice 

This simplest application of cold is to be rejected, especially when the meat 
is placed directly on natural ice, as the pathogenic bacteria which the ice might 
contain may be transmitted to the meat. Besides, through the melting of the ice, 
unnecessary moisture is added to the meat, whereby under certain conditions, the 
buyer would be at a disadvantage regarding the weight of such meat. 




Fig. 45. Refrigerating railroad car for transportation of meat, after Trapp. 
A, axle ; B, belt ; C, driving pulley ; D, ventilator ; E, receptacle for calcium chloride ; 
F, air shaft; G, ice chest. 

(b) Influence of Cold Air 

1, Cooling of Air by Ice 

Through the storing of ice and its gradual melting, the surrounding 
air is cooled. On this principle are based the preserving properties of ice- 
boxes, ice-cellars, ice-houses. The various constructions of these cannot 
be treated here. Their qualities depend on the circulation of the air in the 
meat-keeping rooms, and on their thorough insulation against radiating 
beat. For larger plants these methods are not satisfactory, inasmuch as 



84 Chap. III. Production, Preparation, and Conservation of Meat 

they are dependent on numerous contingencies (deficiency of ice, exces- 
sive summer heat, failure of the ventilation arrangements, etc.) 

On this principle rests also the transportation of meat in refrigerator cars which 
are constructed in accordance with various systems (Straschiripka and Tiffany; 
Anderson, Zimmermann, Acclom, Jaschka, Wickes, Schreiber, Trapp, and others). 
The construction of the meat transport car patented by abattoir veterinarian Trapp 
in Strassburg is illustrated and described under Fig. 45. 




Fig. 46. Schematic sketch of the principal parts of a cold-air refrigerating 

apparatus 



Conserving of the Meat 85 



2, Refrigeration Plant Machines 

The modern operated refrigeration plant with machine power has for 
its object the continual maintenance independent of outside influences of 
a temperature ranging from 4° to 20° C. in the storage room for meat. 
At the same time it reduces the contents of moisture to at least 70 per 
cent, of the relative moisture, and provides for a continual renewal of air, 
which it purifies. For this purpose every refrigeration plant consists of 
the following three principal parts : The cold generator, the cold trans- 
mitter, and the chilling room proper, which in the various systems is dif- 
ferently constructed and arranged. 

• As refrigeration machines^ at the present time can be considered only 
the "cold steam" or "compression" machines, since the "cold air" or "air 
expansion" machines cannot be utilized in the meat industry. 

The refrigeration machines act in accordance with the physical law 
that the evaporation of liquids consume heat. For this purpose there are 
principally used carbonic acid, ammonia, and sulphuric acid, which pass in 
a circle through a system of pipes and are compelled to remain in a por- 
tion of the pipe system in a liquid state, as a result of low temperature 
and pressure, while in the other part of the system they have an opportu- 
nity for evaporation. The principal parts of the refrigeration machines 
are the compressor, condenser, and evaporator. The operation schemat- 
ically produced according to Fig. 46, is as follows : 

In the engine room is a steam engine A, directly connected with the com- 
pressor B. From the latter a pressure pipe connection D leads to the condenser K, 
from which a pipe connection with the regulating valve C leads to the evaporator V. 
The condenser and evaporator are large cylindrical galvanized-iron containers, in 
which the mentioned pipes run in numerous spiral windings, which are rinsed 
with cold and continually renewed water in the condenser, and in the evaporator by 
a salt or chloride of calcium solution. These solutions are continually kept moving 
with a stirring apparatus which are also operated by the engine, and which turn 
around a perpendicular axis inside of the spiral tubing. The spiral piping of the 
evaporator returns to the compressor as a suction tube S. If, now, one imagines the 
pipe system D, C, S, filled with one of the mentioned gases, it will, as a result of 
the pressure of the compressor piston and from the cold water running through the 
spiral piping of the condenser, change into a liquid state with a constant effort to 
return to a gaseous condition. The latter occurs in the evaporator into which the 
gas is admitted and regulated by the valve C, and in which the gas is no longer 
kept under pressure, but on the contrary suction is applied to it through the pipe 
S from the compressor. During the evaporation, the gas abstracts heat from the 



1 For _ extensive descriptions see Lorenz, New Refrigeration Machines, their 
Construction, Operation, and Industrial Utilization, Miinchen-Leipzig, 1901, III 
Auflage ; Statefeld, The Utilization of Refrigeration Machines, Berlin, 1901 ; 
Gottsche, The Refrigeration Machines, Hamburg, 1904; also Schwartz, Construction, 
Arrangement and Operation of Public Abattoirs and Stock Yards, Berlin, 1898, 
II edition, and Schwartz, Machines for the Operation of Abattoirs, Berlin, 1901. 



86 Chap. III. Production, Preparation, and Conservation of Meat 

spiral pipes which enclose it, and these agam from the salt water (salt+chloride of 
calcium solution) which surrounds them, by which the latter is cooled down to 
minus 10-12° C. But the evaporated gas passes again as mentioned into the com- 
pressor, and makes the described circle over again. The cooled salt water acts 
further as a transmitter of cold and is pumped by the pump P from the evaporator, 
is then pressed into the piping W, and is conveyed into the air-cooling chamber L 
and L', from which it enters the ice-manufacturing tank Z, and thence returned. 

In the air-cooling chamber, the salt-water pipes are spread in numerous wind- 
ings in such a way that the connection of each chamber may be detached from the 
other; therefore each chamber may be operated separately. The air-cooling cham- 
bers are connected by air shafts with the meat cooler proper in such a manner that 
for instance the air shaft T conveys the air from the cooler into the air-cooling 
chamber and the air shafts U and U' permit the return of the air from the air- 
cooling chambers into the meat cooler. In the latter the distribution of the cooled 
air is accomplished by canals supplied with openings which are attached to the 
ceiling. In a similar way special canals are present for the air to be drawn away 
by suction. The moving of the air between the mentioned rooms is accomplished 
by a ventilator M, which is operated either by electricity or by transmission from 
the steam engine in such a way that by an alternating opening or closing of valves 
the air in the meat cooler is ventilated while passing around the pipes of the air- 
cooling chambers L and L' ; at the same time the network of pipes which is cooled 
down to zero, abstracts from the moving air heat impurities and moisture so that 
the air is returned to the cooler cooled, purified and dried. That moisture is 
abstracted from the air is manifested by the ice deposits on the pipes, which grad- 
ually gets thicker, and also encloses the impurities which the air contains. The 
layer of ice around the pipes, however, retards more and more the radiation of 
cold from the pipe system, and therefore considerably diminishes the cooling action. 
For this reason, after certain intervals the active pipe system of one of the air- 
cooling chambers is detached and the other placed into operation, which acts like 
ihe first. In the meantime the first thaws out, and may then be again operated when 
the second has to be detached on account of the thick ice covering. The ice- 
producing tank Z serves for the production of artificial ice for which purpose 
galvanized-iron containers are filled with water and hung into the salt water of the 
tank; the water is permitted to freeze and the containers are then taken out of 
the salt water. The latter are then dipped into warm water in order to loosen the 
ice from the sides of the container and the ice is then emptied out. Practical 
mechanical installations greatly facilitate the necessary work. To supply the meat 
cooler with fresh air, and to ventilate them when they do not contain anything for 
cooling, the ventilator M is employed, which transmits the change of air through 
the air shafts F and F'. 

In place of the salt-water piping, which can also be connected with the meat 
cooler, although this cannot be recommended, may be used certain arrangements 
for cooling the air, in which artificially moving air is run over the surfaces irrigated 
by cold salt water or is directed through the salt water. Of the various systems of 
refrigeration machines those of Linde-Wiesbaden (ammonia), Humbold-Kalk 
(ammonia), Riedinger- Augsburg (carbonic acid), Borsig-Tegel near Berlin (sul- 
phurous acid) are the best known. 

Regarding the equipment of the meat coolers proper, it is only neces- 
sary to mention that they contain racks constructed of iron railings with 
arrangements for hanging the meat. In abattoirs usually special chill- 



Conserving of the Meat 87 

rooms and cutting rooms are also constructed, and the first is brought into 
direct connection with the kilhng floor, from which the dressed carcass is 
conveyed without much effort into the cooHng rooms the temperature of 
which is not kept as low as in the coolers proper. For the preservation of 
fish, game, poultry, etc., special cooling rooms are constructed, the air of 
which should not be connected with the rooms where fresh meat is kept. 

For controlling the temperature and the moisture of air in the cooling 
room it is recommended that self-registering thermometers and hygrom- 
eters be installed, which in some places are required by regulation. 

3, Freezing 

The freezing of meat is accomplished for preserving meat an unlim- 
ited time, as for transatlantic transportation. The equipment for this 
purpose is the same as those described for the refrigeration plants ; the 
air, however, is cooled below 0° C, and is kept constantly under the 
freezing temperature. 

B, Chemical Preserving Methods 
1, Preservation with Salt 

On the preservative action of salt is based the oldest method, gen- 
erally practiced in the household, as well as in the wholesale trade, the 
salting and pickling of meat. The first indicates a superficial preservation 
for a shorter time, while with the latter a complete penetration of the 
meat with salt is obtained, and therefore a lasting preservation. This is 
based principally on the dehydrating action of the salt and less on its 
germicidal action. 

While superficial salting may be carried out on all kinds of meats, 
pickling is best adapted for pork meat, especially bacon on account of its 
high muscular fat content ; fine-fibered beef, intermixed with fat 
(brisket), also produces a good pickled meat. Lean beef as well as veal 
and mutton get dry and unpalatable from pickling. 

Regarding the application of the salt, nothing further need be said. The pro- 
cedure of pickling depends on the time to be consumed and on the desire for a 
certain degree of preservation of the meat proditcts. If one desires a hurried 
pickling (forced pickling) and to abstract from the meat only a little moisture, it 
i'^. best to place the meat in a salt solution (brine) or to inject this solution into 
the meat alongside of the bone or into the connective tissue with a special brine 
syringe supplied with a hollow needle. 

In the latter case the salt acts osmotically on the meat, both from the outside 
and from the inside. The keeping quality of such pickled meat is not very high, on 
account of the large content of water, and therefore such meat is usually destined 
for early consumption or it is further preserved by smoking. In slow pickling the 
surfaces of the smaller cuts of meat are rubbed with salt, and the pieces are 



88 Chap. III. Production, Preparation, and Conservation of Meat 

packed into barrels, each layer of meat being thoroughly covered with a layer of salt. 
The quantity of salt to be used is about 50 g. to i kg. of meat. By this process 
there is also formed a brine, the water content of which originates almost entirely 
from the meat. The latter, therefore, dries out considerably, and in consequence 
such meat possesses a better keeping quality. The recently recommended "injec- 
tion pickling" by Fjelstrup, by injecting the blood-vessels with brine immediately 
after slaughter, has not yet reached a practical importance. 

The changes which meat undergoes through pickhng are the 
following : 

(a) Turning gray of the muscles due to change of the muscle col- 
oring matter. To prevent this saltpeter is added to the salt, which is 
readily reduced to nitrous acid, which changes the hemoglobin into a 
bright red derivitive (hemorrhodin, Lehmann). According to Haldame, 
through the action of the nitrates on the hemoglobin, in the presence of 
oxygen and reducing substances, nitricoxyd hemoglobin develops, to 
which the uncooked pickled meat also owes its red color. Regarding the 
red color of the pickled meat after cooking, see page 76. The quantity 
of saltpeter usually added amounts to 1^-2 g. to each kilo of meat, and 
there has never yet been found injurious quantities of this cardiac depres- 
sant in pickled meat. Glage prefers to use directly small quantities 
of nitrates in the pickling, or to add alkaline phosphates to the brine to 
obtain a high red color of the meat. The addition of cane-sugar to the 
brine or salt mixture increases their powers of checking putrefaction. 

(b) The previously mentioned loss of water depends on the method 
of pickling and the original contents of moisture in the meat ; it may 
amount to 10 or 15 per cent. 

(c) The abstraction of nutritive substances, as a result of pickling, 
is not to be underestimated. 

According to Polenske it amounts to : 

In 3 weeks pickling 7-77% N. and 34.72% phosphoric acid anhydride. 
In 3 months pickling 10.08% N. and 54.46% phosphoric acid anhydride. 
In 6 months pickling 13.78% N. and 54.60% phosphoric acid anhydride. 

Besides, there occurs a considerable loss of extractive substances 
(meat bases), and potassium salts to such an extent that pickled meat not 
only possesses a relatively smaller nutritive value than fresh meat, but it 
is also, as a rule, harder to digest (compare with page 75). These state- 
ments were substantiated by Notiiwang, who further established that in 
boiling and stewing, pickled meat also loses extractive ingredients and 
phosphoric acid. 

(d) The increase of weight of meat in pickling also depends on the 
method of procedure. In pickling in brine, beef gained 9.4 per cent, after 
3 weeks, and after 3 months 13 per cent, of the original weight (Polen- 



Conserving of the Meat 89 

ske) . The absorption of salts after 14 days' pickling of beef at 4 degrees 
amounted to an average of 8.35 per cent, of saltpeter and 15.69 per cent, 
of common salt (Kuschel). 

The influence of pickling on the meat of diseased animals has formerly been 
overestimated. Although in accordance with Forster's investigations, cultures of 
anthrax bacilli under the influence of common salt are destroyed in from 18 to 24 
hours, cultures containing spores retain their virulence for months. Tubercle bacilli 
retained their infectivity for 18 days in pickled pieces of organs, and cultures 
sprinkled over with common salt remained virulent for 2 months. Bacillus morbi- 
ficans bovis and bacillus enteritidis were, according to Stadler, destroyed in con- 
centrated salt solution only after 3 and 4^ weeks. Cultures of the bacillus of 
swine erysipelas are only slowly killed through salt in substance, but somewhat 
iwore quickly by concentrated salt solution. Brine exceeds both the former in its 
bactericidal action, and it destroys the erysipelas organisms in about 8 days. Still 
it was possible to dem,onstrate virulent erysipelas bacilli in the meat affected with 
erysipelas after being soaked in brine for about 7 weeks. Pickled meat contains 
even after 4 months, virulent erysipelas bacilli (Stadie). The cultures of pyogenic 
staphylococci and streptococci acted in the same manner. Animal parasites, if pres- 
ent in the meat (cysticercus, trichinae), are positively killed in thorough pickling of 
the meat. 

2, Preservation with Boracic Acid 

Although the preservative action of boracic acid (BO3H3) and its salt is not 
great, as they act only in checking the development of bacteria, yet they may pre- 
vent infection and decomposition, and keep fresh meat in its natural color. Therefore 
preservatives containing boracic acid have been used in the meat industry to a con- 
siderable extent. For many meat products boracic acid acts to some extent as a 
substance to increase their weight through an increase of their water contents. 

The preservative salts containing borax were placed on the market under 
various names. The best known are: Barmenit (common salt and sodium chloro- 
borate) ; [sodium chloroborate is sodiumborate combined with chlorin] ; double and 
triple preserving salt (boracic acid, saltpeter, common salt, Glauber's salt) ; boro- 
glyceride (a product containing about 60 per cent, glycerine and about 40 per cent, 
boracic acid). 

The injurious effect of boracic acid and its salt on the human system has been 
argued for many years. In the practice of meat inspection it was decided that the 
use of boracic acid and its salt in the preservation of meat foods is prohibited in 
Germany on the ground of the Imperial Decree of February 16, 1902, in connection 
with the publication of the Imperial Chancellor of February 18, 1902. [Their use is 
also prohibited in the United States (see B. A. I. Order 150, Regulation 22, sec- 
tion i).] 

3, Preservation with Sulphurous Acid 

The salts of sulphurous acid and especially the sulphites, are brought into trade 
under the name of preservative salts, the acid or primary calcium sulphite (SO3H2) 
Ca, or acid potassium and sodium sulphite (so-called bisulphite) ■SO3HK and 
S03HNa, or also neutral sodium sulphite S03Na2 mixed with common salt, 
Glauber's salt, sugar, etc. As already indicated, sulphurous acid salts are not so 
much conserving substances for meat as they are for the preservation of muscle 



90 Chap. III. Production, Preparation, and Conservation of Meat 

coloring matter. Therefore they were principally employed for the preservation of 
the fresh meat color on the surface of pieces of meat, and especially for the preven- 
tion of chopped (ground) meat from turning gray. The action of the sulphites in 
preventing putrefaction is only slight, so that putrefaction may develop in meat con- 
taining sulphites. But as the initial putrefaction is hidden by the redness of the 
muscle coloring matter, the use of these preserving salts in connection vv^ith the 
meat trade leads not only to deceptions regarding the freshness of the same, but 
also to the consumption of meat which might have obtained injurious properties 
through putrefaction. 

The difference of opinions regarding the immediate influence of sulphites on 
the health of human beings was decided against the sulphites in the German Empire 
by prohibiting the addition of these substances to meat products in accordance with 
the Imperial Decree of February i6, 1902, in connection with the publication of the 
Imperial Chancellor of February 18, 1902. ['Sulphites have also been prohibited in 
the United States in accordance with B. A. I. Order 150, Reg. 22, sect, i.] 

Regarding the test of meat for sulphites see page 342. 

4, Other Chemical Conserving Substances 

Other chemical conserving substances, such as salicylic acid, sodium sili- 
cofluoride, ammonium acetate, sodium acetate, formaldehyde, lactic acid, glycerine 
and others have been tried in an experimental way for the conservation of meats, 
but they have not attained any practical importance. Of the above conserving sub- 
stances the following are prohibited from use in connection with the preparation 
of meat in the German Empire : Formaldehyde, alkalies and alkaline earth hydrox- 
ides and carbonates, fluorhydrogen and its salts, salic3dic acid and its combinations, 
and chlorine acid salts. 

[The use of chemical preservatives in the preparation and preservation of meat 
and meat-food products with the exception of common salt and saltpeter is pro- 
hibited in the United States, and the measures governing the same are contained in 
B. A. 1. Order 150, Regulation 22.] 

The bactericidal action of acetic acid is utilized in the Deichstetter-Emmerich 
method (see page 79) for keeping meat fresh. The animal is slaughtered, and clean- 
liness is observed as much as possible; then the large blood vessels are infused with 
diluted acetic acid, and the surface of the meat is sprayed with acetic acid. The 
keeping of the meat has to be carried out as described on page 79. This method 
which proves an undeniable success if carefully executed, is, however, a failure 
in large practice, due to the frequent unreliability of persons intrusted with 
the work. 

5, Conservation by Smoking 

The preparation of meat products for keeping under the preserving 
influence of smoke (smoked products, ham, bacon, smoked meat, pickled 
smoked meat), has been known since the oldest times. Only such meat 
is adapted for preservation with smoke, however, as contains a compara- 
tively small quantity, of water (pickled meat), or is of such consistency 
that the latter is readily diminished in the smoking and makes an easy 
penetration of the smoke possible (sausages). There is also meat sub- 
jected to smoking not so much for preservation as for its penetration by 
the burning substances of the smoke to make the meat more palatable. 



Conserving of the Meat 91 

The apphcation of smoke consists in the development of proper 
smoke, and this is best accompHshed by a slow burning- of wood in the 
form of sawdust. Of the latter hard woods, and especially juniper bush, 
furnishes the best smoke, while the burning of pine wood is useless for 
smoking purposes on account of the large amount of turpentine which it 
contains. The smoking process may be carried out as slow or as forced 
smoking. In the slow smoking the meat is kept for days and weeks in a 
room of 20°-25° C, the air of which is impregnated with smoke (smoking 
room), while in the forced or hot smoking the products (fish, sausages), 
are exposed only a short time to the smoke at 7o°-ioo° C. Besides there 
is also a so-called artificial or quick smoking, in which the meat or sausage 
Js dipped into a mixture of pyroligneous acid, water, and juniper oil, or 
the meat is covered with the same and then dried in an airy place. Also 
decoctions of shining soot which is formed in the burning of wood with 
or without the addition of salt is supposed to be employed for applying 
to meat products. With both methods, however, it is not aimed to con- 
serve the meat preparations, but to impart to them a smoky taste. 

The conserving effect of smoking on meat rests upon the previously 
mentioned extraction of water and the penetration of the meat with gases 
and fumes of the smoke, which are substances preventing putrefaction. 
Among these are the tar products and hydrocarbons soluble in water; 
also acetic acid, creosote, phenol, cresol, carbonic acid, ammonia, etc. 

Concerning the action of smoking on microorganisms, the investigations of 
Ben, Serafini, and Ungaro showed that even pathogenic germs are destroyed in a 
short time if they are easily reached by the smoke. In the smoking of infected 
meat it has to be considered, however, that there soon forms on the surface a coagu- 
lated layer which makes the penetration of the smoke more difficult. Therefore 
the germs contained on the inside of large pieces of meat may only with difficulty 
be destroyed. And this is also influenced by the water content of the meat, inas- 
much as the water prevents the penetration of the smoke. The bacilli of hog erysip- 
elas are destroyed in two weeks' continual and intensive smoking of pickled meat, 
if the pieces do not exceed 2.5 kg. in weight (Stadie). 

5, Various Food Preparations Derived from Food Animals 

A, Meat Extract 

Although the meat extract is not a food but a delicacy of animal origin, still, on 
account of its extensive consumption, it should be briefly mentioned here. The 
meat extract of which the principal brand is that discovered by Pettenkofer, and 
named in honor of Liebig, is almost exclusively prepared in America from lean beef, 
which is chopped 1py machine and is boiled with little water under high steam pres- 
sure in an apparatus. After the separation of fat, coagulated albumin, and fibrin, the 
filtered meat broth is concentrated in a vacuum, and is then again boiled down in 
open kettles which are supplied with stirring apparatuses until a thick pap is formed, 
which is filled into jars; 30-32 kg. of lean meat gives about i kg. of meat extract. 



92 Chap. III. Production, Preparation, and Conservation of Meat 

The extracted meat fibers are dried and ground and shipped to Europe as American 
meat flour, where it is utiHzed for food purposes, and recently also for the prepara- 
tion of albumen. 

According to Stutzer, meat extract contains about 60 per cent of organic sub- 
stances, 20 per cent, salt, and 20 per cent, of water. The organic substances consist 
principally of so-called meat bases — creatin, creatinin, sarkin, xanthin, inosinacid, 
karnosin, aminoacid (Baur & Barschall) and others, as well as small quantities of 
phosphocarnic acid and lactic acid. Glycogen is also generally present. The 
presence of succinic acid in the meat extract cannot be considered as a positive indi- 
cation of putrefaction. The salts consist c^ about two-thirds of potassium phosphate. 

Due to this composition, the meat extract appears as a spicy delicacy which 
stimulates the nerves of taste, smell, and digestion. 

The liquid meat extracts which are brought into trade as Cibil's, Koch's, Maggi's 
extracts, contain much less organic substances than Liebig's and Kammerich's meat 
extract. 

[Meat extract is also prepared in the United States to a large extent from the 
meat broth obtained from the boiling of meats for canning purposes. This is boiled 
down and concentrated in a vacuum to a desired consistency, and is then drawn off 
into various sized containers.] 

B, Peptones 

The efforts of chemistry to convert the albumens of meat into soluble prepara- 
tions which may be absorbed without any further change in the body by the digestive 
apparatus lead to the preparation of peptones. 

According to Stutzer, there may be distinguished pepsin peptones and pancreatic 
peptones. The preparation of the latter has ceased at the present time. The first 
is prepared by subjecting meat to the action of a mixture of pepsin (extract of the 
mucous membrane of the stomach) and hydrochloric acid in the known physio- 
logical dilution; the solution is then filtered, is accurately neutralized with a small 
quantity of bicarbonate of soda, and finally steamed in vacuum. The peptone thus 
prepared, contains albumose as the principal ingredient. 

The opinions regarding the nutritive value of peptones are very different, and 
this is readily explainable, as the various trade preparations contain a greatly chang- 
ing content of true peptones. Thus Stutzer found in a fluid meat peptone prepara- 
tion, 12-15 per cent. peptone=i.9i per cent, nitrogen ; and in another, dry fibrin 
peptone 81 per cent.=i4.56 per cent, nitrogen. 

C, Fat and Tallow 

The fats of food animals, inasmuch as they are not sold in the raw 
state, or as prepared meat products (bacon, etc.), are rendered to serve 
for human food, and the connective tissue constituents of the fat tissue 
are separated from it in the form of cracklings. The rendered hog fat, 
under the name of lard, forms as cooking fat, an important trade article, 
which is principally shipped from America. The freshly rendered beef 
tallow is also sold directly for food purposes. Larger quantities of it are 
utilized for the manufacture of oleomargarin (olein), while the super- 
fluous quantities of tallow are chiefly used for industrial purposes. 



Conserving of the Meat 93 

The lard forms a fine, milk-white homogeneous mass of oleaceous 
consistence and peculiar agreeable odor and taste. The color of the 
lard is sometimes artificially improved by the addition of borax, and its 
water content may be -artificially increased by mixing alum or calcium 
hydrate with the lard. 

While such manipulations, as well as adulterations of lard, as a rule, 
occur only rarely in Germany, they were formerly carried out in Amer- 
ica, with all sorts of varieties of fats. The most frequent manipulation is 
the adulteration with cotton-seed oil. But there are also varieties of lard 
which do not' contain the least portion of hog fat, but are prepared from 
beef fat, mutton fat, cotton-seed oil, cotton-seed stearin, and other kinds 
oi fats, pignut oil, oil of sesame, palm-seed oil, and cocoanut oil. In the 
trade the adulterated lard is given the most varied names, as Cottolene, 
Kotosuet, Refined Lard, Pure Refined Lard, Pure Refined Family Lard, 
Fairbanks' Lard, Frying Lard, Hamburg City Lard, etc. — on the other 
hand, the following American lards are unadulterated — Neutral Lard, 
Leaf Lard, Choice Kettle-rendered Lard (choice lard), and Prime Steam 
Lard. 

[In accordance with the Regulations of April i, 1908, governing the 
meat inspection in the United States, all products sold under the trade 
name of lard must consist of hog fat, as the said regulations provide that 
the true name must be given to all products, and that false or deceptive 
names of meat and meat- food products are prohibited. Further, it is 
provided that the meat-food products which contain substances which 
are added to adulterate the same must bear a label stating that such sub- 
stances have been added. (See B. A. I. Order 150, Regulation 18, sec- 
tions I -14.)] 

According to the German Imperial law of June 15, 1897, regarding 
the traffic with butter, cheese, lard, and their substitutions, all prepara- 
tions resembling lard, the fat content of which does not consist of hog fat, 
must be declared as artificial food fat. 

The so-called sausage fat, known principally in the retail trade, is 
obtained from the skimmings of the sausage broth in which the sausages 
are cooked. It is a mixed fat containing a considerable amount of water 
of a gray to grayish-green color, with a spicy sausage taste (principally 
like marjoram), and which contains small meat particles and unmelted 
pieces of fat. It spoils very easily. 

Under the term margarin, formerly also called artificial butter, sweet 
cream butterine, Holland butter, Holburko, etc., is understood in accord- 
ance with the German Imperial law of June 15, 1897, all those prepara- 
tions which resemble cow butter or butter fat, and which do not entirely 
originate from milk. Margarin was first prepared by the French chemist, 
Mege-Mouries, who, in 1869, made public the process of its preparation, 



94 Chap. III. Production, Preparation, and Conservation of Meat 

which was practically the same as the present method, with the exception 
of some slight changes. The fresh beef fat is washed, macerated, and 
after adding water, potash and stomach mucous membrane, it is heated to 
about 50° C, causing the liquid fat to accumulate on the surface. The 
fat — the so-called "Premier jus" — is then taken off, is clarified, and solidi- 
fied at 25°, by which the tristearin separates in crystals, while the triolein 
and tripalmitin, which together are also called oleomargarin (in the 
United States, oleo oil), remain fluid and are separated from the first by 
pressing. To every 50 kg. of oleomargarin 25 1. of cows' milk and 25 1. 
of water, with a small quantity of butter coloring, is mixed, and the mass 
is then churned. Thus the fat mixture so obtained gives, after washing 
and salting, a fat which tastes like butter. In accordance with the Impe- 
rial law, 10 per cent, of sesame oil must be added in order that the mar- 
garin itself, as well as possible mixtures with butter, may be easily 
detected chemically. 

1:0 margarin is cleanly prepared from good fat, and is sold under 
declaration, no objection can be made against it from a hygienic stand- 
point. According to Jolle's experiments with dogs, margarin is just as 
profitably utilized in the intestines as butter ; and Adolph Mayer, as well 
as Kienzl, found in the comparative experiments on men only very slight 
differences in favor of butter. Tubercle bacilli have been found in mar- 
garin the same as in butter (Morgenroth). 

[The preparation of oleo oil, which is a product of beef fat, com- 
prises an important industry in the largest packing houses of the United 
States. It is the principal ingredient of butterine. The largest part of 
oleo oil manufactured in the United States is exported to Europe, princi- 
pally to Holland and Germany, where it is utilized for the manufacture of 
butterine. There is at the present time only a comparatively small amount 
of butterine manufactured in the United States, the demand for that 
product being somewhat limited. 

In accordance with an act of Congress, butterine must be sold in the 
United States under declaration, and no coloring is permitted to be used 
in its preparation, except by the payment of a heavy license.] 

D, Caviar and Smoked Salmon 

The preservation of fish and crustaceans, which are conserved by salting, 
smoking, drying, inclosing in air-tight cans, pickHng, etc., is of very little importance 
for the general purpose of the subject under consideration. Only the caviar, which, on 
account of its high nutritive value, its easy digestibility, and its palatability, forms 
a widely distributed food and delicacy, and smoked salmon, on account of its various 
trade preparations, will be briefly considered here. 

Caviar is the salted spawn of large varieties of sturgeons. According to Niebel, 
it is obtained principally in Russia, on the lower courses of the Wolga, Don, in the 
Ural, Aral sea, and Caspian sea ; in Germany, on the East sea. North sea, and on 



Conserving of the Meat 95 

the lower course of the Elb ; in America, in the State of Oregon, and in the Terri- 
tory of Alaska- It is distinguished as fluid or granular, and pressed caviar. The 
first, sprinkled with common salt, is passed through a sieve for the separation of the 
adhering membranes, and is packed into barrels. The pressed caviar consists of 
eggs of an inferior quality, "which are placed into brine, and then pressed out after 
sufficient absorption has taken place. 

Relative to the origin and quality, it is distinguished as Russian, American, and 
Elb caviar. The eggs of the most valuable — the Russian caviar— are dark gray to 
black in color, and have an average diameter of 3.55 mm. ; besides, they are free of 
membranes and of added slimy substances. The American and Elb caviar are about 
the same in quality. The eggs of the former are only 2.5-3 mm. in diameter, are 
blackish-gray to blackish-yellow, are softer than those of the Russian caviar, and 
are partly injured. In the Elb caviar, the eggs are still smaller and darker. 
According to Bischof, there is also sold under the name Elb caviar, a decomposed 
i%nerican caviar, which has been specially preserved. 

So-called red caviar is prepared in Russia from the eggs of various fish, and 
in Germany from the eggs of the pike, carp, and other species. 

Regarding the chemical composition of caviar, according to Konig, see table, 
page 40. Slightly salted caviar does not contain more than 5 per cent, salt, while 
strongly salted caviar has up to 10 per cent. salt. According to Raebiger, the fol- 
lowing varieties of smoked salmon are placed on the market : 

(a) American salmon, which is supposed to originate from the Oncorhynchus 
quinnat. Back and abdominal lines run forward almost parallel. Scales, golden 
yellow and shiny. Color of flesh, pink to brick-red. The muscles and their sur- 
rounding connective tissue ("white veins," in business language) are stronger 
developed than in the Rhein salmon. 

(b) The Rhein, Elb, and Weser salmon have a highly arched back and a 
body compressed on the sides. Back and abdominal lines approach each other 
considerably toward the head. Scales are silver white; toward the back they are 
blackish-brown and ovaliy elongated. Color of flesh, pinkish-red and with a slight 
tinge of yellow. They have a heavy cushion of white fat. 

(c'l The East sea, Wolga and Russian salmon have a long, not as much com- 
pressed body, with small round scales. Meat has a typical salmon color, is very rich 
in fat, and the intramuscular connective tissue is loose as in the American salmon. 

(d) The fish known in the trade as sea salmon, is the Merluccius vulgaris. 
Its meat is white and poor in fat. 

(e) The Faqon salmon is prepared from trimmings which are pressed into 
parchment hulls. It may be recognized by the absence of the irregularity in the 
course of the "veins." 



IV. Regulations Governing Meat Inspection 

of the United States Department 

of Agriculture 

B. A. I. ORDER 150 

Regulation 1, Scope of Inspection 

Section i. All slaughtering, packing, meat canning, salting, rendering, or sim- 
ilar establishments, except as hereinafter provided, the meat or meat food products 
of which, in whole or in part, enter into interstate or foreign commence, shall have 
inspection under these regulations. The Secretary of Agriculture may exempt from 
inspection establishments operated by farmers, retail butchers, or retail dealers 
supplying their customers, but in the absence of such exemption inspection is 
required. 

Section 2. Branch houses of official establishments, when such branch houses 
are engaged in interstate or foreign commerce and slaughter animals or process 
meat, shall be considered a part of the parent house, and products received into 
such branch houses or sent from them shall be subject to these regulations, and 
inspection shall be maintained therein. 

Regulation 2. Organization of Force 

Section i. Paragraph i. All permanent employees of the Department of Agri- 
culture engaged in the work of meat inspection are appointed upon certification of 
the Civil Service Commission that they have passed the examination prescribed by 
that Commission. Promotions in all classes are made on the basis of efficiency, 
deportment, and length of service. Such employees include : 

Paragraph 2. Inspectors in Charge. — These are inspectors assigned by the 
Bureau of Animal Industry to supervise official work at each official station. Such 
employees report directly to the Chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry, and are 
chosen by reason of their fitness for responsibility as determined by their records 
in the service. At stations where slaughtering is conducted, only veterinary inspec- 
tors are placed in charge. 

Paragraph 3. Veterinary Inspectors. — All applicants examined for these posi- 
tions must be graduates of recognized veterinary colleges having a course of not 
less than three years leading to the degree. All final ante-mortem and post-mortem 
examinations are conducted by veterinarians. At somie stations the veterinarians are 
assisted in making preliminary examinations by trained laymen known as inspec- 
tors' assistants. 

Paragraph 4. Traveling Veterinary Inspectors. — To observe the conditions of 
sanitation of the establishments at the various stations, note the processes of ante- 
mortem and post-mortem inspection, confer with and instruct inspectors regarding 
it, with a view to a uniform system throughout the country, and to report these 
matters to the Washington office, constitute the principal duties of these employees. 



Interpretation and Definition of Words and Terms 97 

Paragraph 5. Laboratory Inspectors. — These employees possess technical train- 
ing in microscopical and chemical examination of meat food products, and their 
inspections are conducted in laboratories located at various slaughtering centers. 
Pathological laboratories are also maintained, to which diseased specimens may be 
sent when necessary for diagiiosis. 

Paragraph 6. Meat Inspectors. — These employees are laymen, experienced in 
the curing, canning, packing, or otherwise preparing of meat; they supervise that 
work and the use of permitted preservatives described in Regulation 22. 

Paragraph 7. Traveling Meat Inspectors. — These employees perform a service 
similar to that required of traveling veterinary inspectors, but along the line of the 
preparation and handling of meat products. 

Paragraph 8. Inspectors' Assistants. — These employees are laymen, who are 
first assigned to routine duties and are promoted through examination to higher 
duties, such as assisting in conducting ante-mortem and post-mortem examinations. 
* Paragraph 9. Patrolmen. — Patrolmen are employed to patrol the establishments 
at night, to oversee the receipts and shipments of meat, and to observe any opera- 
tions conducted at night. They consist of veterinarians, inspectors' assistants, or 
meat inspectors, according to the character of the work where assigned. 

Paragraph 10. Skilled Laborers. — These employees supervise the marking of 
meat and meat containers, and perform similar work. They are eligible for promo- 
tion only through examination. 

Regulation 3, Interpretation and Definition of Words and Terms 

Wherever in these regulations the following words, names, or terms are used 
they shall be construed as follows : 

Section i. Official Establishment. — This term shall mean any slaughtering, 
meat-canning, salting, rendering, or similar establishment at which inspection is 
maintained under the meat-inspection law approved June 30, 1906 (34 Stat., 674). 

Section 2. Inspectors and Department Employees. — These terms shall mean, 
respectively, inspectors and employees of the Bureau of Animal Industry. 

Section 3. "Inspected and Passed." — This phrase, or any authorized abbrevia- 
tion thereof, shall mean that the carcasses, parts of carcasses, meat, and meat food 
products so marked have been inspected and passed for food under these regulations. 

Section 4. Rendered Into Lard or Tallow. — This phrase shall mean that the 
carcasses, parts of carcasses, meat, and meat food products so designated are 
allowed to be made into edible lard or edible tallow. 

Section 5. "U. S. Inspected and Condemned." — This phrase shall mean that the 
carcasses, parts of carcasses, meat, and meat food products so marked are unfit for 
food and shall be destroyed for food purposes. 

Section 6. Carcass. — This word shall apply to the carcass of an animal that 
has been killed under these regulations, and shall include all parts which are to be 
used for food. 

Section 7. Primal Parts of Carcasses. — This phrase shall mean the usual sec- 
tions or cuts of the dressed carcass commonly known in the trade, such as sides, 
quarters, shoulders, hams, backs, bellies, etc., and beef tongues, beef livers, and beef 
tails, before they have been cut, shredded, or otherwise subdivided preliminary to 
use in the manufacture of meat food products. 

Section 8. Meat Food Products. — Paragraph i. A meat food product, within 
the meaning of the meat-inspection act and of these regulations, is considered to be 
any article of food intended for human use which is derived or prepared in whole 



gS Chap. IV. Regulations Governing Meat Inspection of U. S., etc. 

or in part from any edible portion of the carcass of cattle, sheep, swine, or goals, if 
the said edible portion so used is a considerable and definite portion of the finished 
food. 

Paragraph 2. Mixture. — A mixture of which meat is an ingredient will not be 
considered a meat food product unless the meat contained therein is a definite and 
considerable portion of the said mixture. But where such mixture is prepared 
in a part of an official establishment, the sanitation of that part of the establishment 
will be supervised by the Department, and the meat or meat food products will be 
inspected before it enters the said mixture. The mixture shall not bear the meat- 
inspection legend or any simulation thereof. If any reference is made to Federal 
inspection it shall be in the following form : "The meat contained herein has been 
inspected and passed at an establishment where Federal inspection is maintained." 
Mixtures, such as mince-meats, soups, etc., which come under this description, and 
which are not officially labeled, are allowed in interstate and foreign commerce 
without further inspection, and without certificates, subject to the provisions and 
requirements of the Food and Drugs Act of June 30, 1906, and the regulations made 
thereunder. 

Section 9. Medical Meat Products. — Products, such as meat juice, meat extract, 
etc., which are intended only for medicinal purposes and are advertised only to the 
medical profession, are not considered meat food products within the meaning of 
this order. 

Section 10. Vinegar. — The word vinegar, as used herein, shall mean cider 
vinegar, wine vinegar, malt vinegar, sugar vinegar, glucose vinegar, or spirit vinegar. 

Regulation 4. Inspection or Exemption 

Section i. The proprietor or operator of each slaughtering, packing, meat- 
canning, rendering, or similar establishment engaged in the slaughtering of cattle, 
sheep, swine, or goats, or in the packing, canning, or other preparation of any meat 
food product for interstate or foreign commerce, shall make application to the 
Secretary of Agriculture for inspection or for exemption from inspection, except in 
cases where inspection or exemption is already in effect. In case of change of 
ownership or change of location of an establishment already having inspection, a 
new application shall be made. Exemption under the law can be given only to 
establishments operated by retail butchers and retail dealers. Such application shall 
be in writing addressed to the Secretary of Agriculture, Washington, D. C, shall 
state the location of the establishment, and shall be made on blanks which will be 
furnished by the Chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry upon request. 

Section 2. Inspection shall not be begun if an establishment is not in a sanitary 
condition, nor unless the establishment provides and guarantees to maintain adequate 
facilities for conducting such inspection. 

Section 3. If, in the judgment of the Secretary of Agriculture, the retail 
butcher or retail dealer who is operating an establishment and engaged in supplying 
his customers through the medium of interstate or foreign commerce is entitled 
to exem.ption from Federal inspection, a numbered certificate of exemption will be 
furnished to the applicant for use with transportation companies and other com- 
panies and persons in securing the movement of his products. If an establishment, 
including both market and slaughterhouse of such retail butcher or dealer, is not in 
a sanitary condition, a certificate of exemption will not be issued. 

Section 4. Exempted establishments shall be open to the inspectors of the 
Bureau of Animal Industry, shall be maintained in a clean condition, and shall con- 



Official Number, etc. 99 

form to the same regulations as govern official establishments in regard to labeling, 
dyes, chemicals, and preservatives, and unsound, unwholesome, and unfit meat. 

Regulation 5, Official Number 

Section i. Paragraph i. When inspection is established the Secretary of Agri- 
culture will give the establishment a number, and this number shall be used to mark 
the meat and meat food products of the establishment as hereafter prescribed. 

Paragraph 2. Two or more official establishments under the same ownership or 
control may use the same establishment number, provided a serial letter is added in 
each case to designate the establishment and to enable its product to be identified. 

Paragraph 3. Persons, firms, or corporations owning subsidiary companies hav- 
ing legal entity may use the names of such companies, provided application has been 
made for inspection and it has been granted, the inspection legend in such case to 
bear the official establishment number of the parent firm or corporation. 
* Paragraph 4. Each official establishment must be separate and distinct from 
any other establishment or deparlment in which animal products are handled at 
which inspection is not maintained. When two or more companies prepare their 
products in the same official establishment they must obtain inspection under the 
same number. The name of the distributer may appear upon the label.. 

Regulation 6» Assignment of Inspectors, etc. 

Section i. The Chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry will designate an 
inspector to take charge of the inspection at each official establishment, and will 
assign to said inspector such assistants as may be necessary. 

Section 2. For the purpose of enforcing the law and regulations all employees 
of the Bureau of Animal Industry shall have access at all times, by day or night, 
Avhether the establishment be operated or not, to every part of the establishment. 

Section 3. Each employee of the Bureau of Animal Industry working under 
these regulations will be furnished with a numbered badge, which he shall wear over 
the left breast on the outer clothing while in the performance of his official duties, 
and which shall not be allowed to leave his possession. This official badge shall b.- 
sufficient identification to entitle him to admittance at all regular entrances and '.o 
all parts of the establishment and premises. 

Section 4. Office room, including light and heat, shall be provided by proprie- 
tors of establishments, rent free, for the exclusive use, for official purposes, of ;h^ 
inspectors and other employees of the Department assigned thereto. The room or 
rooms set apart for this purpose must be properly ventilated, conveniently lGcat.'d, 
and provided with lockers suitable for the protection and storage of such supplies 
as may be required; all to meet the approval of the inspector in charge. 

Regulation 7< All Garcasbcs and Products Inspected 

Section i. All ca'.tle, sheep, swine, or goats slaughtered at an official establish- 
ment, and all meat r.nd meat food products prepared therein, shall be inspected, han- 
dled, prepared, and marked as required by these regulations. 

Regulation 8, Notice of Daily Operations, ttc. 

Section i. The manager of each official establishment shall inform the inspector 
in charge, or his assistant, when work has been concluded for the day, and of the 
day and hour when work will be , resumed. Under no circumstances shall any 



lOO Chap. IV. Regulations Governing Meat Inspection of U. S., etc. 

department of an establishment be operated except under the supervision of an 
employee of the Bureau of Animal Industry. All slaughtering of animals and the 
preparation of meat and meat food products shall be done within reasonable hours.. 
and with reasonable speed, the facilities of the establishment being considered. 

Section 2. Where one inspector is detailed to conduct the work at two or 
more small establishments where few animals are slaughtered, or where but a small 
quantity of meat or meat food products is prepared, the inspector in charge may 
designate the hours for work. 

Section 3. No work shall be performed at official establishments during any day 
on which such work is prohibited by the law of the State or Territory in which the 
establishment is located. However, the Department will require that it be judicially 
determined that such work is prohibited by the State law. 

Regulation 9, Bribery 

Section i. It is a felony, punishable by fine and imprisonment, for any person, 
firm, or corporation to give, pay, or offer, directly or indirectly, to any Department 
employee authorized to perform any duty under these regulations any money or 
other thing of value with intent to influence said employee in the discharge of his 
duty under these regulations. It is also a felony, punishable by fine and imprison- 
ment, for any Department employee engaged in the performance of duty under 
these regulations to receive or accept from any person, firm, or corporation engaged 
in interstate or foreign commerce an}' gift, money, or other thing of value given with 
and purpose or intent whatsoever. 

Regulation 10, Sanitation 

Section i. After the receipt of an application for inspection or exemption an 
examination of the establishment and premises will be made and the requirements 
for sanitation and the necessary facilities for inspection will be specified. 

Section 2. Plans and specifications, in duplicate, of plants for which applica- 
tion for inspection is made, also of new plants and plants to be remodeled, should 
be submitted to the Secretary of Agriculture. 

Section 3. Official establishments and establishments to which certificates of 
exemption have been issued shall be suitably lighted and ventilated and maintained 
in a sanitary condition, and shall be provided with efficient drainage, having properly 
trapped or other approved sewer connections. Rooms in which inspection is car- 
ried on shall, by heating or other means, be kept reasonably free from steam and 
other vapors, in order that proper inspection can be made. All work in such estab- 
lishments shall be performed in a cleanly and sanitary manner. 

Section 4. Ceilings, walls, pillars, partitions, etc., shall be kept in a sanitary 
condition, and when necessary they shall be washed, scraped, painted, or otherwise 
treated as required. Where floors or other parts of a building or tables or other 
parts of the equipment, are so old or in such poor condition that they cannot be 
readily made sanitarj^, they shall be removed and replaced by suitable materials. 
All floors upon which meats are piled during the process of curing shall be so con- 
structed that they can be kept in a clean and sanitary condition, and all meat piled 
tipon floors shall be suitably protected from trucks, etc. Walks and platforms or 
approaches leading into establishments shall be kept clean to prevent tracking dirt 
into the same. 



Sanitation loi 

Section 5. All trucks, trays, and other receptacles, all chutes, platforms, racks, 
tables, etc., and all knives, saws, cleavers, and other tools, and all utensils, machinery, 
and vehicles used in moving, handling, cutting, chopping, mixing, canning, or other 
processes shall be thoroughly cleaned before using. 

Section 6. Managers of establishments must require employees to be cleanly. 
The aprons, smocks, or other outer clothing vi^orn by employees who handle meat or 
meat food products shall be of a material that is readily cleansed and made sanitary, 
and only clean garments shall be worn. Persons who handle meat or meat food 
products shall be required to keep their hands clean, and they shall be required also 
to pay particular attention to the cleanliness of their boots or shoes. 

Section 7. Persons affected with tuberculosis or any other communicable dis- 
ease shall not be employed in any of the departments of establishments where car- 
casses are dressed, meat is handled, or meat food products are prepared; and any 
employee of such establishment who may be suspected of being so affected shall be 
r^orted by the inspector in charge to the manager of the establishment and to the 
Chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry. 

Section 8. All water-closets, toilet rooms, and dressing rooms shall be entirely 
separated from compartments in which carcasses are dressed or meat or meat food 
products are cured, stored, packed, handled, or prepared. Where such rooms open 
into compartments in which meat or meat food products are handled they must, 
when this is considered necessary, be provided with properly ventilated vestibules 
and with automatically closing doors. They shall be conveniently located, sufficient 
in number, ample in size, and fitted with modern lavatory accommodations, includ- 
ing toilet paper, soap, running hot and cold water, towels, etc. They shall be prop- 
erly lighted, suitably ventilated, and kept in a sanitary condition. Convenient and 
sanitary urinals shall be provided; and washstands, near at hand, shall also be 
provided. 

Section 9. The rooms or compartments in which meat or meat food products 
are prepared, cured, stored, packed, or otherwise handled shall be free from odors 
from toilet rooms, catch basins, casing departments, tank rooms, hide cellars, etc., 
and shall be kept free from flies and other vermin by screening, or other methods. 
All rooms or compartments shall be provided with cuspidors of such shape as not 
readily to be upset and of such material and construction as to be readily disinfected, 
and employees who expectorate shall be required to use them. 

Section 10. The feeding of hogs or other animals on the refuse of slaughter- 
houses shall not be permitted on the premises of an exempted establishment or an 
official establishment, and no use incompatible with proper sanitation shall be made 
■of any part of the premises on which such establishment is located. All yards, 
fences, pens, chutes, alleys, etc., belonging to the premises of such establishments, 
whether they are used or not, shall be maintained in a sanitary condition, and no 
nuisance shall be allowed in the establishment or on its premises. 

Section 11. Butchers who dress or handle diseased carcasses or parts shall 
cleanse their hands of all grease and then immerse them in a prescribed disinfec- 
tant and rinse them in clear water before dressing or handling healthy carcasses. 
All butchers' implements used in dressing diseased carcasses shall be sterilized either 
in boiling water or by immersion in a prescribed disinfectant, followed by rinsing 
in clear water. Facilities for such cleansing and disinfection, approved by the 
inspector in charge, shall be provided by the establishment. Separate sanitary trucks, 
etc., which shall be appropriately and distinctively marked, shall be furnished for 
handling diseased carcasses and parts. Following the slaughter of any animal 
aft'ected with an infectious disease, a stop shall be made until the implements have 
been cleansed and disinfected, unless other clean implements are provided. 



102 Chap. IV. Regulations Governing Meat Inspection of U. S., etc. 

Section 12. Inspectors are required to furnish their own implements for use in 
dissecling, incising, or examining diseased carcasses or unsound parts, and are 
required to use the same means for disinfecting implements, hands, etc., that are 
prescribed for employees of the establishment. 

Section 13. Due care must be taken to prevent meat and meat food produc::s 
from falling on the floor; and in the event of their having so fallen, they must be 
condemned or the soiled portions removed and condemned. When meat or meat 
food products are being emptied into tanks, some device, such as a metal funnel, 
must be used. 

Section 14. Carcasses shall not be inflated with air from the mouth, and no 
inflation of carcasses except by mechanical means shall be allowed. Carcasses shall 
not be dressed with skewers, knives, etc., that have been held in the mouth. 
Skewers shall be cleaned before being ussd again. Spitting on whetstones or steels 
when sharpening knives shall not be allowed. 

Section 15. Onh^ good, clean, and wholesome water and ice shall be used in the 
preparation of carcasses, parts, meat, or meat food products. Whenever there is 
any doubt regarding the sanitary condition of the water supph% notice shall be sent 
immediately to the Chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry. 

Section 16. Wagons or cars in which meat or meat food products are trans- 
ported shall be kept in a clean and sanitary condition. The wagons used in trans- 
porting loose meat between official establishments shall be so closed and covered 
that the contents shall be kept clean, and so constructed that they may, when neces- 
sary, be locked and sealed wi.h Government seals, which seals shall be affixed and 
broken only by employees of the Department. 

Section 17. Skins and hides from animals condemned for tuberculosis or any 
other disease infectious to man, but showing no outward appearance of disease, may 
be removed (except as provided in Regulation 13, section 2 for tanning or other 
uses in the arts when disinfected as follows : Each skin and hide must be immersed 
for not less than five minuses in a 5 per cent, solution of liquor cresolis compositus 
or a 5 per cent, solution of carbolic acid, or a i lo 1,000 solution of bichlorid of 
mercury. The process of skinning and dipping must be conducted entirely in the 
retaining room, or other specially prepared place, approved by the inspector in 
charge, for final inspection. 

Regulation 11, Aate^'nurtem Examination and Inspection 

Section i. An ante-mortem examination and inspection shall be made of all 
cattle, sheep, swine, and goats, about to be slaughtered before they shall be allowed 
to be killed in an official establishment. Satisfactory facilities for conducting said 
inspection and for separating and holding apart from passed animals those marked 
"U. S. Svispect" shall be provided. 

Section 2. All animals showing symptoms or suspected of being affected with 
any disease or condition which, under these regulations, would probably cause their 
condemnation in whole or in part when slaughtered shall be marked by affixing to 
the animal a metal tag bearing the words '"U. S. Suspect." All such animals, except 
as hereinafter provided, shall be set apart and slaughtered separately from other 
animals at an official establishment. 

Section 3. Animals which have been tagged for pregnancy or for having 
recently given birth to young, and which have not been exposed to any infectious 
or contagious disease, and vaccine animals with unhealed lesions accompanied by 
fever and which have not been exposed to any other infectious or contagious disease. 



Post-mortem Inspection at Time of Slaughter, etc. 103 

;ire not required to be slaughtered, but before any such animal is removed the tag 
shall be detached by a Department employee and returned with his report to the 
inspector in charge. 

Section 4. If any pathological condition is suspected in which the question of 
temperature is important, stich as Texas fever, anthrax, pneumonia, blackleg, or 
septicemia, the exact temperature should be taken. Due consideration, however, 
must be given to the fact that extremely high temperature may be found in other- 
wise normal hogs when subjected to exercise or excitement, and a similar condition 
may obtain to a less degree among other classes of animals. 

Section 5. Animals commonly termed "downers," or crippled animals, shall be 
tagged before slaughter as provided for in Regulation 17, section i, for the purpose 
of identification at the time of slaughter, and shall be passed upon in accordance with 
these regulations. 

• Regulation 12, Port/Tnortem Inspection at Time of Slaughter 

Section i. A careful inspection shall be made of all animals at the time of 
slaughter. The head, tongue, tail, thymus gland, and all viscera, and all parts and 
blood used in the preparation of meat food or medical products, shall be retained in 
such manner as to preserve their identity until after post-mortem examination has 
been completed, in order that they may be identified in case of condemnation of the 
carcass. Suitable racks or metal receptacles shall be provided for retaining such 
parts. 

Section 2. Carcasses and parts thereof found to be sound, healthful, wholesome, 
and fit for human food shall be passed and marked as provided in these regulations. 

Section 3. Should any lesion of disease or other condition that would render 
the meat or any organ tmfit for food purposes be found on post-mortem examination, 
the carcass, part, or organ shall be marked immediately with a tag, as provided in 
Regulation 17, seclion 3. Carcasses which have been so marked shall not be washed 
or trimmed unless such washing or trimming is authorized by the inspector. ~ 

Regulation 13« Disposal of Diseased Carcasses and Organs 

Section i. General Statement. — The carcasses or parts of carcasses of all 
animals slaughtered at an official establishment and found at time of slaughter or 
at any subsequent inspection to be affected with any of the diseases or conditions 
named below shall be disposed of according to the section of this regulation per- 
taining to the disease or condition. It is to be understood, however, that owing to 
the fact that it is impracticable to formulate rules covering every case, and to desig- 
nate at just what stage a process becomes loathsome or a disease noxious, the 
decision as to the disposal of all carcasses, parts or organs not specifically covered 
by these regulations shall be left to the veterinary inspector in charge. 

Section 2. Anthrax or Charbon. — All carcasses showing lesions of anthrax or 
charbon, regardless of the extent of the disease, and including the hide, hoofs, horns, 
viscera, fat, blood, and all other portions of the animal, shall be condemned and 
immediately incinerated. The killing bed upon which the animal was slaughtered 
shall be disinfected with a 10 per cent, solution of formalin, and all knives, saws, 
cleavers, and other instruments which have come in contact with the carcass shall 
be treated as provided in Regulation 10, section 11, before being used upon another 
carcass. 

Section 3. Blackleg. — Carcasses of animals showing lesions of blackleg shall 
be condemned, 



104 Chap. IV. Regulations Governing Meat Inspection of U. S., etc. 

Section 4. Hemorrhagic Septicemia. — Carcasses of animals affected with hem- 
orrhagic septicemia shall be condemned. 

Section 5. Pyemia and Septicemia. — Carcasses showing lesions of pyemia or 
septicemia shall be condemned. 

Section 6. Vaccinia. — Carcasses of vaccine animals mentioned under Regulation 
II, section 3, shall be condemned. 

Section 7. Rabies. — Carcasses of animals which showed symptoms of rabies 
before slaughter shall be condemned. 

Section 8. Tetanus.- — Carcasses of animals which showed symptoms of tetanus 
before slaughter shall be condemned. 

Section 9. Malignant Epizootic Catarrh. — Carcasses of animals affected with 
malignant epizootic catarrh and showing generalized inflammation of the mucous 
micmbranes shall be condemned. 

Section 10. iHog Cholera and Swine Plague. — Paragraph i. Carcasses showing 
well-marked and progressive lesions of hog cholera or swine plague in more than 
two of the organs (skin, kidneys, bones, or lymphatic glands) shall be condemned. 

Paragraph 2. Provided they are well nourished, carcasses showing slight and 
limited lesions of these diseases may be passed. 

Paragraph 3. Carcasses which reveal lesions more numerous or advanced than 
those for carcasses to be passed, but not so severe as the lesions described for car- 
casses to be condemned, may be rendered into lard, provided they are cooked by 
steam for four hours at a temperature not lower than 220 degrees Fahrenheit, or at 
a pressure of 4 pounds. 

Paragraph 4. In inspecting carcasses showing lesions of hog cholera or swine 
plague in the skin, bones, kidneys, or lymphatic glands, due consideration shall be 
given to the extent and severity of the lesions found in the viscera. 

Section 11. Actinomycosis or Lumpy Jaw. — Paragraph i. If a carcass affected 
with actinomycosis or himpy jaw is in a well-nourished condition and there is no 
evidence upon post-mortem examination that the disease has extended from a pri- 
mary area of infection in the head, the carcass may be passed, but the head, inckid- 
ing the tongue, shall be condemned. 

Paragraph 2. Carcasses of animals showing uncomplicated localized actinomy- 
cotic lesions other than, or in addition to, those specified in paragraph i of this 
section may be passed after the injected organs and parts have been removed and 
condemned. 

Paragraph 3. Carcasses of animals showing a generalized actinomycosis shall 
be condemned. 

Section 12. Caseous Lymphadenitis.— Whtn the lesions of caseous lymphadenitis 
are limited to the superficial lymphatic glands or to a few nodules in an organ, 
involving also the adjacent lymphatic glands, and the carcass is well nourished, the 
meat may be passed after the affected parts are removed and condemned. If exten- 
sive lesions, with or without pleuritic adhesions, are found in the lungs, or if several 
of the visceral organs contain caseous nodules and the carcass is emaciated, it shall 
be condemned. 

Section 13. Tuberculosis. — Paragraph i. The following principles are declared • 
for guidance in passing on carcasses affected with tuberculosis : 

Principle A — Fundamental Thought. — The fundamental thought is that meat 
should not be used for food if it contains tubercle bacilli, if there is a reasonable pos- 
sibility that it may contain tubercle bacilli, or if it is impregnated with toxic sub- 
stances of tuberculosis or associated septic infections. 



Disposal of Diseased Carcasses and Organs 105 

Principle B — Lesions Localised and not Numerous. — On the other hand, if the 
lesions are localized and not numerous, if there is no evidence of distribution of 
tubercle bacilli through the blood, or by other means, to the muscles or to parts that 
may be eaten with the muscles, and if the animal is well nourished and in good con- 
dition, there is no proof, or e,ven reason to suspect, that the flesh is unwholesome. 

Principle C — Generalised Tuberculosis.— ¥lvidences of generalized tuberculosis 
are to be sought in such distribution and number of tuberculous lesions as can be 
explained only upon the supposition of the entrance of tubercle bacilli in consid- 
erable number into the systemic circulation. Significant of such generalization are 
the presence of numerous uniformly distributed tubercles throughout both lungs, 
also tubercles in the spleen, kidneys, bones, joints, and sexual glands, and in the 
lymphatic glands connected with these organs and parts, or in the splenic, renal, 
prescapular, popliteal, and inguinal glands, when several of these organs and parts 
are coincidentally affected. 

^ Principle D — Localised Tuberculosis. — By localized tuberculosis is understood 
tuberculosis limited to a single or several parts or organs of the body without evi- 
dence of recent invasion of numerous bacilli into the systemic circulation. 

Paragraph 2. Rules of Disposal of Tuberculous Meat. Entire Carcass Con- 
demned. — The following rules shall govern the disposal of tuberculous meat : 

Rule A. — The entire carcass shall be condemned — 

(a) When it was observed before the animal was killed that it was suffering 
with fever. 

(&) When there is a tuberculous or other cachexia, as shown by anemia and 
emaciation. 

(c) When the lesions of tuberculosis are generalized, as shown by their pres- 
ence not only at the usual seats of primary infection, but also in parts of the carcass 
or the organs that may be reached by the bacilli of tuberculosis only when they 
are carried in the systemic circulation. Tuberculous lesions in any two of the 
following-mentioned organs are to be accepted as evidence of generalization when 
they occur in addition to local tuberculous lesions in the digestive or respiratory 
tracts, including the lymphatic glands connected therewith : Spleen, kidney, uterus, 
udder, ovary, testicle, adrenal gland, brain, or spinal cord or their membranes. 
Numerous uniformly distributed tubercles throughout both lungs also afford evi- 
dence of generalization. 

{d) When the lesions of tuberculosis are found in the muscles or intermuscular 
tissues or bones or joints or in the body lymphatic glands as a result of draining the 
muscles, hones, or joints. 

((?) When the lesions are extensive in one or both body cavities. 

(/) When the lesions are multiple, acute, and actively progressive. (Evidence 
of active progress consists in signs of acute inflammation about the lesions, or lique- 
faction necrosis, or the presence of young tubercles.) 

Rule B — Part of Carcass Condemned. — An organ or a part of a carcass shall 
be condemned — 

(a) When it contains lesions of tuberculosis. 

(&) When the lesion is immediately adjacent to the flesh, as in the case of tuber- 
culosis of the parietal pleura or peritoneum, not only the membrane or part affected 
but also the adjacent thoracic or abdominal wall is to be condemned. 

(c) When it has been contaminated by tuberculous material, through contact 
with the floor, a soiled knife, or otherwise. 

(d) All heads showing lesions of tuberculosis shall be condemned. * 



io6 Chap. IV. Regulations Governing Meat Inspection of U. S., etc. 

(e) An organ shall be condemned when the corresponding lymphatic gland is 
tuberculous. 

Rule C — Carcass Passed. — The carcass, if the tuberculous lesions are limited 
to a single or several parts or organs of the body (except as noted in Rule A), with- 
out evidence of recent invasion of tubercle bacilli into the systemic circulation, shall 
be passed after the parts containing the localized lesions are removed and con- 
demned in accordance with Rule B. 

Rule D — Carcass Rendered Into Lard or Tallow. — Carcasses which reveal 
lesions more numerous than those described for carcasses to be passed (Rule C) 
but not so severe as the lesions described for cascasses to be condemned (Rule A), 
may be rendered into lard or tallow if the distribution of the lesions is such that ail 
parts containing tuberculous lesions can be removed. Such, carcasses shall be coaked 
by steam at a temperature not lower than 220 degrees Fahrenheit for not less than 
four hours. 

Section 14. Texas Fever. — Carcasses showing lesions to warrant the diagnosis 
of Texas fever shall be condemned. 

Section 15. Parasitic I ctero-hematuria. — Carcasses of sheep affected with para- 
sitic ictero-hematuria shall be condemned. 

Seclion 16. Mange or Scab. — Carcasses of animals affected with mange or scab, 
in advanced stages, or showing emaciation or extension of the inflammation to the 
flesh, shall be condemned. When the disease is slight the carcass may be passed. 

Section 17. Tapezvonn Cysts. — Paragraph i. Carcasses of animals affected 
with tapeworm cysts, known as Cysticercus bovis and C. ccllulosce, shall be rendered 
into lard or tallow, unless the infestation is excessive, in which case the carcass 
shall be condemned. 

Paragraph 2. Carcasses of animals found infested with gid bladderworms 
(Ca^nurus cerebralis, Multiceps socialist may be passed after condemnation of the 
infected organ (brain, spinal cord). 

Paragraph 3. Carcasses or parts of carcasses found infested with the hydatid 
cyst (echinococcus ■ may be passed after condemnation of the infected part or organ. 

Section 18. Infections that May Cause Meat Poisoning. — All carcasses of ani- 
mals so infected that consumption of the meat or meat food products thereof may 
give rise to meat poisoning shall be condemned. This section covers all carcasses 
showing signs of — 

(a) Acute inflammation of the lungs, pleura, pericardium, peritoneum, or 
meninges. 

{b) Septicemia or pyemia, whether puerperal, traumatic, or without any evident 
cause. 

(c) Severe hemorrhagic or gangrenous enteritis or gastritis. 

{d) Acute diffuse metritis or mammitis. 

{e) Polyarthritis. 

if) Phlebitis of the umbilical veins. 

(g) Traumatic pericarditis. 

{h) Any other inflammation, abscess, or suppurating sore if associated with 
acute nephritis, fatty and degenerated liver, swollen soft spleen, marked pulmonarj- 
hyperemia, general swelling of lymphatic glands, and diffuse redness of the skin, 
either singly or in combination. 

Immediately after slaughter of any animal so diseased the premises and imple- 
ments used must be thoroughly disinfected as prescribed elsewhere in these regula- 
tions. The part of any carcass coming into contact with the carcass or any part 
of the carcass of any animal covered by this section, other than those affected with 



Disposal of Diseased Carcasses and Organs 107 

the diseases mentioned in (a) above, or with the place where such animal was 
slaughtered, or with the implements used in the slaughter, before thorough disinfec- 
tion of such place and implements has been accomplished, or with any o'.her con- 
taminated object, shall be condemned; in case the contaminated part is not removeil 
from the carcass within two "hours after such contact the whole carcass shall be 
condemned. 

Section 19. Icterus. — Carcasses affected with icterus and showing an intense 
yellow or greenish yellow discoloration after proper cooling shall be condemned. 
Carcasses which exhibit a yellowish tinge directly after slaughter, but lose this dis- 
coloration on chilling, may be passed for food. 

Section 20. Uremia and Sexual Odor. — Carcasses which give off the odor of 
urine or a strong sexual odor shall be condemned. 

Section 21. Urticaria, etc. — Hogs affected with urticaria (diamond skin dis- 
ease), Tinea tonsurans, Demodex foUiculoruni, or erythema may be passed after 
deliBching and condemning the skin, if the carcass is otherwise fit for food. 

Section 22. Melanosis, etc. — Carcasses of animals showing any disease, such as 
generalized melanosis, psuedo-leukemia, etc., which affects the system of the animal, 
shall be condemned. 

Section 23. Tumors, Bruises, Abscesses, Liver Flukes, etc. — Any organ or part 
of a carcass which is badly bruised or which is affected by tumors, malignant or 
benign, abscesses, suppurating sores, or liver flukes shall be condemned; but when 
the lesions are so extensive as to affect the whole carcass, the whole carcass shall 
be condemned. 

Section 24. Emaciation and Anemia. — Carcasses of animals too emaciated or 
anemic to produce wholesome meat, and carcasses which show a slimy degeneration 
of the fat or a serous infiltration of the muscles, shall be condemned. 

Section 25. Milk Fever and Railroad Sickness. — Carcasses of animals showing 
symptoms of milk fever or railroad sickness at the time of slaughter shall be con- 
demned, as the flesh of such animals is frequently darker in color and more watery 
than is natural, and the present view of the pathology of at least the first disease 
suggests autointoxication. 

Section 26. Pregnancy and Parturition. — Carcasses of animals in advanced 
stages of pregnancy (showing signs of parturition), also carcasses of animals which 
have within ten days given birth to young, and in which there is no evidence of 
septic infection, may be rendered into lard or tallow if desired by the manager of 
the establishment ; otherwise they shall be condemned. 

Section 27. Immaturity. — Carcasses of animals too immature to produce 
wholesome meat, all unborn and stillborn animals, also carcasses of calves, pigs 
kids, and lambs under three weeks of age, shall be condemned. 

Section 28. Diseased Parts. — In all cases where carcasses showing localized 
lesions of disease are passed or rendered into lard or tallow, the diseased parts must 
be removed before the 'U. S. Retained" tag is taken from the carcass, and such parts 
shall be condemned. 

Section 29. Suffocation. — Hogs which have been allowed to pass into the scald- 
ing vat alive or have been suffocated in other ways shall be condemned. 

Section 30. Dead Animals. — All animals that die in abattoir pens, and those in 
a dying condition before slaughter, shall be condemned and tagged as provided in 
Regulation 17, section 2. In conveying to the tank animals which have died in the 
pens of the establishment, they shall not be allowed to pass through compartments 
in which food products are prepared. No dead animals shall be brought into an 
establishment for rendering from outside the premises of said establishment unless 
permission is first obtained from the Chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry. 



io8 Chap. IV. Regulations Governing Meat Inspection of U. S., etc. 

Section 31. Bruised Parts. — When a portion of a carcass is to be condemned 
on account of slight bruises, the bruised portion shall be removed immediately and 
tanked, and the remainder of the carcass shall be marked ' ' Inspected and Passed. ' ' 
When desired, a retaining room may be provided in one part of the cooler for the 
retention of such carcasses until after they are chilled, when the bruised portion may 
be removed. 

Section 32. Portions of Intestines. — Portions of intestines that show evidence 
of infestation with esophagostoma or other nodular affections shall be condemned. 

Section ;}:^. Evisceration of Diseased Hogs. — Hog carcasses found before evis- 
ceration has taken place to be affected with an infectious or contagious disease, 
including tuberculosis, shall not be eviscerated at the regular killing bed or bench, 
but shall be taken, separate from other carcasses, to the retaining room or other 
specially prepared place and there opened and examined. 

Regulation 14, " Retaining " Rooms 

Section i. Separate compartments, to be known as "retaining rooms," or 
other places for final inspection, shall be set apart at all official establishments, and 
all carcasses and parts marked with a "U. S. Retained" tag shall be held in these 
rooms pending final inspection. These rooms shall be rat proof, large enough for 
carcasses to hang separately, furnished with abundant light, and provided with sani- 
tary tables and other necessary apparatus ; the floors shall be of cement, asphalt, 
metal, or brick laid in cement ; and shall have proper sewer connections. They 
shall be provided with facilities for locking, and locks for this purpose will be fur- 
nished by the Department. The keys to such locks shall remain in the custody of 
the inspector or his assistant. In establishments where it is impracticable or unde- 
sirable to have refrigeration in the retaining room, rooms may be constructed in the 
cooler for the reception and chilling of carcasses not affected with infectious dis- 
eases, but which require further inspection. 

Section 2. Retained carcasses shall be subjected to a final inspection, and 
immediately after this is completed those found to be wholesome and fit for human 
food shall be released by the veterinary inspector conducting the inspection, who 
shall remove the "U. S. Retained" tags, and the carcasses shall be removed from 
the retaining room and marked "Inspected and Passed," as provided in Regula- 
tion 17, section 5. 

Section 3. The floors and walls of all retaining rooms shall be washed with 
hot water and disinfected after diseased animals are removed and before any 
"retained" carcasses are again placed therein. 

Regulation 15, "Condemned " Rooms 

Section i. In each establishment at which condemned carcasses or meat-food 
products are held until the day following their condemnation there shall be pro- 
vided a room entirely separate from all other rooms in the establishment. This room 
shall be secure, rat proof, and shall be provided with a lock, the key of which shall 
remain in the custody of a Department employee. This room shall be known as 
the "condemned room," and shall be kept locked at all times except when con- 
demned meat or meat food product is being taken into or from the said room under 
the supervision of a Department employee. The condemned room shall be kept 
clean. 



Tank Rooms, Tanks, and Tanking 109 

Section 2. Carcasses or parts of carcesses found on final inspection to be 
unsound, unhealthfuL, unwholesome, or otherwise unfit for human food shall be 
marked "U. S. Inspected and Condemned," as provided in Regulation 17, section 4, 
and shall be immediately removed from the retaining room to the ' ' condemned 
room," if such condemned room is provided. In case no condemned room is pro- 
vided they shall be locked in the retaining room and shall be tanked at or before 
the close of the' day on which they are condemned. 

Section 3. Condemned carcasses shall not be allowed to accumulate, but shall 
be removed from the "condemned room," denatured as provided in Regulation 16, 
section 3, or tanked within a reasonable time after condemnation. 

Section 4. A truck or trucks of sufficient capacity, plainly marked, and which 
can be locked or sealed, shall, when required by the inspector in charge, be pro- 
vided for handling condemned meat. 

Regulation 16. Tank Rooms, Tanks, and Tanking 

Section i. All tanks and equipment used for rendering and preparing edible 
product shall be in compartments separate from those used for rendering inedible 
product, and there shall be no connection by means of pipes or otherwise between 
the tanks or departments containing inedible product and those containing edible 
product. This provision must be complied with on or before October i, 1908. 

Section 2. Paragraph i. — All condemned carcasses, parts of carcasses, and 
meat-food products shall be tanked as follows : 

Paragraph 2. After the lower opening and the draw-off valves of the tank 
have been securely sealed by an employee of the Department and the condemned 
carcasses, parts, and meat-food products are placed therein in his presence, the 
upper opening shall be likewise securely sealed by such employee, whose duty it shall 
be then to see that a sufficient force of steam (not less than 40 pounds, producing 
a temperature of 288 degrees Fahrenheit) is turned into the tanks and maintained a 
sufficient time (not less than six hours) efifectually to render the contents unfit for 
any edible product. Wire and lead seals are provided by the Department for seal- 
ing tanks. Proprietors of establishments are required to equip all tanks used for 
condemned products so that they may be securely sealed in the manner above 
specified. 

Paragraph 3. A sufficient quantity of coloring matter or other substance to be 
designated by the Department shall be used in connection with the rendering of all 
condemned carcasses, parts of carcasses, meat, or meat-food products to destroy 
them effectually for food purposes. 

Paragraph 4. The seals of tanks containing condemned meat or the tankage 
thereof shall be broken only by an employee of the Department, and such employee 
shall supervise the drawing off of the contents of such tanks and the marking of 
the tallow and grease as inedible. 

Paragraph 5. If an official establishment fails to permit the treatment and 
tanking of condemned carcasses, parts of carcasses, meat, or meat-food products as 
required by these regulations, the inspector in charge shall report that fact to the 
Department, in order that inspection may be withdrawn from such establishment. 

Section 3. Any meat or meat-food products condemned at establishments which 
have no facilities for tanking shall be freely slashed with a knife and then dena- 
tured with crude carbolic acid or other prescribed agent, and then removed to an 
establishment indicated by the inspector in charge and there tanked and rendered 
under the supervision of an employee of the Department ; or such meat or meat-food 
products may be destroyed by incineration under the supervision of an employee of 
the Department. 



110 Chap. IV. Regulations Governing Meat Inspection of U. S., etc. 



Regulation 17< Tags, Brands, Stamps 

Section i. To each animal inspected under Regulation ii, which shows symp 
toms or is suspected of being aiTected with any disease or condition which under 
these regulations may cause its condemnation in whole or in part on post-mortem 
inspection there shall be affixed by a Department employee at the time of inspection 
a numbered metal tag bearing the words " U. S. Suspect, ' ' which shall remain upon 
the animal until final post-mortem inspection, when the carcass shall be marked 
according to the conditions found, and disposed of as elsewhere provided in these 
regulations. 

Section 2. To the ear of each animal which is found in a dying condition or 
dead on the premises of an establishment there shall be affixed by a Department 
employee a numbered tag bearing the words "U. S. Condemned." The ear bearing 
the tag shall not removed from the carcass. The number of this tag shall be reported 
to the inspector in charge by the employee who affixes it. This tag shall accompany 
the condemned carcass into the tank, and the Department employee who is super- 
vising the tanking shall make a report of the number to the inspector in charge. 

Section 3. Upon each carcass, or part or detached organ thereof, inspected 
under Regulation 12, in which any lesion of disease or other condition is found that 
might render the meat or any organ unfit for food purposes, and which for that 
reason would require a subsequent inspection, there shall be placed by a Depart- 
m.ent employee at the time of inspection a tag, numbered in duplicate, bearing the 
words "U. S. Retained," and such other marks of identification shall be used as 
shall be approved by the Chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry. The inspector 
who attaches this "U. S. Retained" tag shall detach the numbered stub thereof and 
■ forward it with his report to the inspector in charge. The other portion shall 
accompany the carcass to the retaining room. 

Section. ^. Each carcass, or part or detached organ thereof, which is found on 
final inspecton to be unsound, unhealthful, unwholesome, or otherwise unfit for 
human food shall be marked conspicuously by a Department employee at the t'me 
of inspection with the words "U. S. Inspected and Condemned." The "U. S. 
Retained" tag shall accompany the carcass into the tank, and the number thereof 
shall be reported by the employee who supervises the tanking. If, however, upon 
final inspection the carcass or part thereof is passed, the "U. S. Retained" tag shall 
be removed and returned to the inspector in charge. A record of the tag showing 
the serial number, the final disposal of the carcass or part to which it was affixed, 
the date, and the name of the inspector shall be forwarded with the regular reports 
to the inspector in charge. 

Section 5. Upon all passed carcasses slaughtered under inspection there shall 
be placed by an employee of the Department, or by an employee of the establishment 
under the supervision of an employee of the Department, meat-inspection marks 
bearing the words "Inspected and Passed," or an authorized abbreviation thereof, 
and such other matter as may be required by the Department. The number of 
marks, their location on the carcass, and the time they shall be affixed, shall be 
determined by the Chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry. 

Section 6. Paragraph i. — Each' passed primal part or the true container thereof 
must be marked under the supervision of a Department employee, with the words 
"Inspected and Passed," or an authorized abbreviation thereof, and the official 
establishment number, except as provided in paragraphs 2 and 3 of this section and 
in section 12 of Regulation 25. 



Tags, Brands, Stamps iii 

Paragraph 2. When primal parts are shipped from one official establishment to 
another for further processing, it is not obligatory that the inspection legend appear 
on such primal parts, but the container thereof in the case of a package shall be 
marked as specified in section 9 of this regulation, and in the case of a car shall 
be sealed; in such cases the "primal parts, after processing, shall show plainly the 
inspected legend and the number of the official establishment at which the process- 
ing was completed. 

Paragraph 3. Passed primal parts of pork intended for export need not be 
marked with the authorized marks of inspection, but all outside containers shall 
bear the meat-inspection stamp. 

Section 7. The inspection legend or an authorized abbreviation thereof may 
be affixed, under the supervision of a Department employee, to hams, bacon, and 
similar primal parts with a hot branding iron, and when so affixed will be recognized 
as the official mark of inspection. When hot branding irons are used to affix trade 
brffnds or descriptions, such brand Or description must be distinct and apart from 
the inspection legend. 

Section 8. Upon all meat-food products which are suspected on reinspection of 
being unsound, unhealthful, unwholesome, or otherwise unfit for human food, or 
upon the containers thereof, there shall be placed by a Department employee at the 
time of reinspection the "U. S. Retained" tags hereinbefore described. The 
employee who affixes the tag shall send the numbered stub with his report to the 
inspector in charge. These tags shall accompany the said meats or meat-food prod- 
ucts to the retaining room or other special place for final inspection. When the 
final inspection is made, if the meat or meat-food product be condemned, the "U. S. 
Retained" tag shall be stamped "U. S. Inspected and Condemned," and shall 
accompany the condemned meat or meat-food product to the tank, and the inspector 
shall report his action to the inspector in charge. If, however, upon final inspec- 
tion the meat or meat-food product is passed for food, the inspector shall stamp 
the retained tag "Inspected and Passed" and return the tag with his report to the 
inspector in charge. 

Section 9. When meat products for domestic trade have been inspected and 
passed, the outside containers of such meat shall bear (in lieu of meat-inspection 
stamp), a domestic meat label which has been submitted to and approved by the 
Department, showing the official establishment number and the following legend : 
"The meat contained herein has been inspected and passed under the provisions of 
the act of June 30, 1906." The firm name may also appear on the label if desired. 
The dimensions of the label shall be not less than 4 inches by 2-J inches. 0:itside 
containers if bearing approved trade labels are not required to be provided with the 
label above described. Domestic meat labels shall be affixed to packaies in the manner 
prescribed in Regulation 24 for affixing labels to export packages. 

Section 10. Each outside container (except cloth wrappings) of export meat 
or meat-food products shall be marked with a meat-inspection stamp. The cloth 
wrappings of inspected and passed meat which is so marked shall be marked with, 
an authorized mark of inspection. 

Section 11. Upon each container of meat or meat-food products, such as ham, 
bacon, etc., prepared for export with preservatives under Regulation 22, section 3, 
paragraph i, there shall be placed, under the personal supervision of a Department 
employee, a special stamp for marking such meats, known as the "Preservative" 
stamp. All outside containers of such meat or meat-food products shall bear the 
' ' Preservative ' ' stamp. 



112 Chap. IV. Regulations Governing Meat Inspection of U. S., etc. 



Regulation 18, Trade Labels 

Section i. Upon each can, pot, tin, canvas, or other receptacle, or covering 
containing any meat or meat-food product, w^hich meat or meat-food product does 
not bear the marks "Inspected and Passed," there shall be securely affixed, under 
the supervision of a Department employee, a trade label before such meat or meat- 
food product leaves an official establishment. This trade label shall contain, in plain 
letters and figures of uniform size, the words "U. S. Inspected and Passed," the 
number of the official establishment at which the meat or meat-food product is last 
processed, and the true name of the meat or meat-food product contained in such 
package. The words "under the act of Congress of June 30, 1906," may be placed 
upon the label after the words " U. S. Inspected and Passed. ' ' An inspector shall 
not allow trade labels to be affixed until he is satisfied that the contents of the pack- 
age are sound, healthful, wholesome, and fit for human food, in accordance with 
the statements on the label. 

Section 2. Duplicate copies of each trade label in the form of sketches or 
proofs shall first be submitted to the Department, and no trade label shall be used 
until a sketch or proof thereof has been approved. After trade labels are printed 
from approved proofs or sketches they shall be forwarded in triplicate to the 
Department for approval and filing. 

Section 3. No trade label bearing the words " U. S. Inspected and Passed, ' ' or 
any abbreviation or simulation thereof, shall be used on meat or meat-food prod- 
ucts which have not been inspected and passed under these regulations, and no trade 
label bearing the inspection legend, or any abbreviation or simulation thereof, shall 
be placed upon meat or meat-food products except under the supervision of an 
inspector. 

Section 4. Tin containers, embossed or lithographed with the label as pre- 
scribed in section i, will be considered as bearing trade labels. On and after Octo- 
ber I, 1908, all sealed tin containers must have the number of the official establish- 
ment where packed embossed, lithographed, or printed thereon. 

Section 5. The essential features of a trade label are as follows, and shall 
appear upon each label : 

The true name of the product. 

The inspection legend. 

The establishment number. 

Section 6. The inspection legend "U. S. Inspected and Passed," or an author- 
ized abbreviation thereof, and the official establishment number in plain characters 
of uniform size, which shall be in proper proportion to the general lettering of the 
label, must be separately and prominently embodied in all trade labels. 

Section 7. In the case of meat contained in cartons, or in wrappers of paper, 
cloth, or other similar substance, the inspection legend and the official establishment 
number may be embodied in a sticker or seal of proportionate size prominently dis- 
played with the trade label, but not necessarily a part of the trade label, such stickers 
or seals to be approved by the Department of Agriculture. It is not permissible to 
affix to meat or meat-food products a detachable device of any kind which bears 
the inspection legend. 

Section 8. While labels to be affixed for foreign shipment maj' be printed in a 
foreign language, the same rules shall apply with reference to false labeling and 
the naming of ingredients as shall apply to goods prepared for domestic use. The 
Inspection legend and the official establishment number must in all cases appear in 



Reinspection ii^ 

English, but if desired they may in addition, literally translated, appear in the lan- 
guage of the country to which the package is destined. 

Section 9. Paragraph i. When an article is prepared by an official establish- 
ment for another firm or individual, if the name of the said firm or individual is to 
appear upon the label the statement must be made that the article was "prepared for" 
or "manufactured for" the firm or individual. Names of subsidiary companies 
which have legal entity may be used without the prefix "prepared for" or "manufac- 
tured for." 

Paragraph 2. When a firm or individual not operating under Federal inspec- 
tion desires to reship inspected and passed meat that has been processed only under 
Government inspection and is eligible under these regulations for interstate ship- 
ment, he may affix to the package the following statement : "The meat contained 
herein has been inspected and passed at an establishment where Federal inspection 
is maintained." 

• Section 10. No meat or meat-food products shall be sold or offered for sale by 
any person, firm, or corporation under any false or deceptive name ; but the estab- 
lished trade name or names which are usual to such products, which are not false 
and deceptive and which shall be approved by the Secretary of Agriculture, are 
permitted. 

Section 11. No picture, design, or device, which gives any false indication of 
origin or quality shall be used upon any label. The law prohibits any statement, 
design, or device false in any particular regarding the virtues or properties of the 
materials contained in the package. 

Section 12. A meat-food product when composed of more than one ingre- 
dient shall not bear a trade label with a name stating or purporting to show that the 
said meat-food product is a substance which is not the principal ingredient con- 
tained therein, even though such name be an established trade name. 

Section 13. A meat-food product that contains a substance or substances, 
including water, added for the purpose of adulteration and which lessens its food 
value shall bear a label stating that such substance or substances have been added. 

Section 14. When any weight is given upon the true container it must be the 
correct weight, and it must be stated whether this weight is the net weight or the 
gross weight. 

Regulation 19. Reinspection 

Section i. Immediately before shipment and at such other times as may be 
deemed necessary all carcasses or parts thereof, whether fresh or cured, that have 
been previously inspected and passed shall be reinspected by the inspector in charge 
or his assistants, in such manner as shall be prescribed by the Chief of the Bureau of 
Animal Industry, and if upon any such reinspection any carcass or part thereof is 
found to have become unsound, unhealthful, unwholesome, or in any way unfit for 
human food the original mark, stamp, tag, or label shall be destroyed or defaced and 
the carcass or part shall be condemned. 

Section 2. Except as provided in Regulation 20, only carcasses and parts 
thereof, meat, or meat-food products which have not been processed except under 
Government supervision, and which can by marks, seals, brands, or labels be iden- 
tified as having been previously inspected and passed by a Department employee, 
shall be taken into or allowed to enter an official establishment. All such carcasses, 
parts, meat, or meat-food products which are brought into one official establishment 
from another, or which are returned to the establishment from which they issued, 
shall be identified and reinspected at the time of receipt, and shall be subject to 

9 



114 Chap. IV. Regulations Governing Meat Inspection of U. S., etc. 

further reinspection in such manner and at such times as may be deemed necessary. 
If upon any such reinspection any carcass or part thereof, or meat or meat-food 
product, is found to have become unsound, unhealthful, unwholesome, or in any way 
unfit for human food, the original mark, stamp, tag, or label shall be defaced or 
destroyed, and the carcass, part, meat, or meat-food product shall be condemned. 

Section 3. Special docks and receiving rooms shall be designated by the estab- 
lishment for the receipt and inspection of all meat or meat-food products, and no meat 
or meat-food products shall be allowed to enter the establishment except in the pres- 
ence of a Department employee. 

Section 4. Unrendered fats from carcasses which have been inspected and 
passed may be returned and received into official establishments, provided the fats 
have been handled in a sanitary manner after leaving the establishment, and pro- 
vided further that upon inspection the fats are found to be clean, sweet, v/holesome, 
and fit for human food. However, the return of such fats to official establishments 
and the manner in which they shall be handled from the time they leave such estab- 
lishments until their return thereto shall be governed by such specific instructions 
as may be issued from time to time by the Chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry. 

Section 5. Inedible fats may be received only into the tank room provided for 
inedible products, and when so received they shall not enter any compartment used 
for edible products. 

Section 6. Paragraph i. In order to provide for the interstate transportation, 
from public markets and other places, of portions of inspected and passed carcasses, 
parts, and meat-food products which, when cut or otherwise removed from a 
marked carcass, part, or container, do not show the inspection mark and cannot 
therefore be identified as having been inspected and passed, market inspection may 
be furnished. Each city in which market inspection is established will be assigned 
a number, and all products forwarded under such inspection shall bear the inspec- 
tion legend and the official number assigned to the city. 

Paragraph 2. Unmarked portions which are cut from the marked carcass or 
part, or are removed from the marked container for interstate transportation, shall 
be marked by a Department employee. Wherever practicable the brand shall be 
applied to the meat itself; where this cannot be done the true container of the meat 
or meat-food product shall be marked as required by the Chief of the Bureau of 
Animal industry. 

Paragraph 3. All market stalls or other places which are given market inspec- 
tion shall be maintained in a sanitary condition and shall also conform to the require- 
ments of the Department governing the use of the drugs, chemicals, dyes, and 
preservatives. 

Regulation 20, Carcasses of Animals Not Inspected Ante^'mortem 

Section i.^ Carcasses of animals which have had no ante-mortem inspection 
by inspectors of the Bureau of Animal Industry will not, except as hereinafter pro- 
vided, be admitted into an official establishment. The exception to this rule applies 
only to carcasses to which the head and all viscera, except the stomach, bladder, and 
intestines, are held by the natural attachments. Such carcasses, if offered for admis- 
sion into official establishments, shall be inspected, and if found to be free from 
disease and otherwise sound, healthful, wholesome, and fit for human food they shall 
be marked "Inspected and Passed" and admitted. If found to be diseased, unsound, 
unhealthful, unwholesome, or otherwise unfit for human food, they shall be marked 
"U. S. Inspected and Condemned," and the proprietor of the establishment shall be 
required to destroy them for food purposes, as provided in Regulation 16, section 2. 



1 Formerly Regulation 62, B. A. I. Order 137. 



Tank Cars, etc. ii; 



Regulation 21. Tank Cars 

Section i. Tank cars carrying edible meat-food products into interstate or 
foreign commerce shall be provided with proper appliances for sealing and be 
securelj'- sealed with seals furnished by the Department and affixed by Department 
employees. 

Section 2. When such products for export are transferred from tank cars to 
other containers on boals, such transfer shall be under Government supervision, and 
the said containers on boats shall likewise be sealed. 

Regulation 22, Dyes, Chemicals, and Preservatives 

Section i. No meat or meat-food products shall contain any substance which 
lessens its wholesomeness, nor any drug, chemical, dye, or preservative, except 
as hereinafter provided. 

Section 2. Paragraph i. There may be added to meat or meat- food products 
common salt, sugar, wood smoke, vinegar, pure spices, and saltpeter. Only such 
coloring matters as may be designated by the Secretary of Agriculture as being 
harmless may be used, and these only in such manner as the Secretary of Agricul- 
ture may designate. 

Paragraph 2. Substances necessary for the preparation, clarification, or refining 
of meat-food products will be permitted to be used subject to the approval of the 
Secretary of Agriculture, provided they are eliminated from the meat-food products 
during the further process of manufacture. 

Section 3. Paragraph i. In accordance with the written direction of the 
foreign purchaser or his agent, meat or meat-food products prepared for export may 
contain preservatives of a kind and in proportions which do not conflict with the 
laws of the foreign country to which they are to be exported; but when such meat 
or meat-food products are prepared for export under this regulation they shall be 
prepared in compartments of the establishment separate and apart from those in 
which meat or meat-food products are prepared for the domestic trade, and such 
products shall be kept separate. Distinctive export certificates and stamps will be 
issued for meat or meat-food products of this character, but, if the products are not 
exported, under no circumstances shall they be allowed to enter domestic trade. 

Paragraph 2. The packing of meat which is prepared, as provided in para- 
graph I of this section, with any preservative not permitted by paragraph i, section 2, 
may be done in the regular packing room, provided that no other meat is allowed 
in the packing room during the time of such packing. After such packing 
is completed the packing room shall be thoroughly cleansed of the preservative 
before the packing of other meat therein is resumed. A separate compartment con- 
structed of tight partitions, or walls shall be set apart for storing the preservative 
trays and other appliances used in connection with the packing. The Department 
will furnish a lock and key for this compartment, and the packing of all meat under 
this section shall be conducted under the personal supervision of an employee of 
this Department. 

Regulation 23, Preparation of Meat and Meat/food Products 

Section i. All processes used in curing, pickling, rendering, canning, or other ■ 
wise preparing meat or meat-food products in official establishments shall be supei'- 
vised by Department employees. No fixtures or appliances, such as tables, trucks, 
Irays, tanks, vats, machines, implements, cans, or containers of any kind shall be 



ii6 Chap. IV. Regulations Governing Meat Inspection of U. S., etc. 

used unless they are clean and sanitary. All steps in the process of manufacture 
shall be conducted carefully and with strict cleanliness. All salt pickling fluids, and 
other solutions or substances used in curing meat must be clean. 

Section 2. Canned meat or meat-food products which require sterihzation to 
preserve them must be subjected to this process on the same day that the cans are 
filled. Defective or leaking cans discovered after the process of sterilization has 
been completed shall not be repaired or repacked (unless such repairing or repack- 
ing is done within six hours of the time of original sterilization), but the contents 
of such cans shall be removed and condemned. 

Section 3. Potato flour shall not be used in the preparation of sausage, nor 
shall excessive quantities of cereals or water be used. 

Section 4. Paragraph i. The manufacture of all fats into lard, tallow, oils, and 
stearin at official establishments shall be closely supervised by employees of the 
Department, who shall see that all portions of carcasses rendered into edible products 
are clean and wholesome. 

Paragraph 2. Heads rendered into edible products shall first be split, cross - 
sectioned, and thoroughly washed and cleaned. 

Paragraph 3. When hogs" feet are used for lard, the hair, hoofs, and the tissues 
of the interdigital spaces must be removed. 

Paragraph 4. All pipes and similar conveyors used in conducting edible fats 
from one receptacle or container to another shall be of a distinctly different color 
from the pipes and similar conveyors used in conducting inedible fats from on3 
receptacle or container to another. 

Paragraph 5. Blueprints or other accurate diagrams showing all underground 
pipe lines or other conveyors used to conduct edible and inedible products at official 
establishments and also those extending from official establishments to other estab- 
lishments, either official or unofficial, with a description giving the exact location, 
terminals, and dimensions of such pipes, or other conveyers, and of all gates, valves, 
or other controlling apparatus, shall be filed with the Department, and a copy of such 
prints or diagrams shall be filed with the inspector in charge. The prints or dia- 
grams should designate the lines used for conveying edible products and those used 
for conveying inedible products. If no such underground pipes or conveyers 
are used for the purposes above indicated, a written statement certifying to this fact 
and duly signed by the management of each establishment shall be filed with the 
Department. 

Paragraph 6. All containers^ such as vats and tierces, in which white grease 
or other inedible meat products are placed, shall be plainly marked "inedible" in such 
a manner that they can be readily identified. 

Paragraph 7. Final containers, such as tierces, shall be appropriately marked 
on both ends immediately after filling. 

Section 5- The only animal casings that may be used as containers in the 
manufacture of sausage under these regulations are those from cattle, hogs, sheep, 
or goats. 

Regulation 24, Stamps for Export Packages 

Section i. Paragraph i. Numbered meat-inspection stamps shall be affixed 
to packages (except those in cloth wrappings) containing meat or meat-food 
products to be shipped or otherwise transported in foreign trade. 

Paragraph 2. Stamps shall be affixed in the following manner, and when they 
have been affixed they shall be covered immediately with a coating of transparent 
varnish or other similar substance : 



Transportations 117 

(a) The stamp may be afifixed in a grooved space made by removing a portion 
of the wood of sufficient size to admit the stamp. 

(b) The stamp may be placed on either end of the package, provided that the 
sides are made to project at least one-eighth of an inch to afford the necessary pro- 
tection from abrasion. 

Section 2. Inedible-product stamps and certificates may, upon request, be 
issued to accompany shipments for export of casings, bladders, lungs, hoofs, and 
other similar inedible animal products. 

Regulation 25. Transportations^ 

Section i. Upon the application of the exporter the inspector in charge of an 
establishment is authorized to issue certificates for export shipments of inspected 
and passed meat or meat-food products. The certificate should be issued at the time 
the product leaves the establishment ; if, however, the certificate is not issued at that 
time, it can only be issued upon identification and reinspection of the product. 

Section 2. These certificates shall be issued in serial numbers and in triplicate 
form. Each certificate shall show the names of the exporter, and the consignee, the 
destination, the numbers of the stamps attached to the article to be exported, the 
shipping marks, the kind of product, and the weight. 

Section 3. Only one certificate shall be issued for each consignment unless 
otherwise directed by the Chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry. 

Section 4. Both the original and duplicate certificates shall be delivered by the 
inspector to the shipper. The copy of certificate provided by law to be delivered to 
the chief officer of the vessel shall be the duplicate copy and shall be filed with the 
customs officers at the time of filing the master's manifest or the supplemental 
manifest. 

Section 5. No master of any steam or sailing vessel shall receive for transpor- 
tation or transport from the United States to Great Britain or Ireland, or any of the 
countries of continental Europe, or to Argentina or Mexico, any carcass, part of 
carcass, or meat-food product of cattle, sheep, swine, or goats, except ship stores, 
unless and until a certificate of inspection covering the same has been issued and 
delivered as provided in this regulation. The requirement of export certificates is 
waived for meat and meat-food products to foreign countries, other than those here- 
inbefore named. 

Section 6. When inedible grease, inedible tallow, or inedible stearin derived 
from cattle, sheep, swine, or goats is offered for export, the collectors of customs, 
under instructions from the Secertary of Commerce and Labor, will require an 
affidavit from the exporter that the products to be exported are inedible and are not 
intended for food purposes. 

Section 7.- No person, firm, or corporation shall receive for transportation or 
transport from one Stc'.te or Territory or the District of Columbia to another State or 
Territory or tiie District of Columbia any carcass, part of carcass, or meat-food 
product of cattle, sheep, swine, or goats unless and until a certificate is made and 
furnished in one of the forms prescribed in sections 11, 12, 13, and 14 of this regula- 
tion, showing that such meat or meat-food product has been either inspected and 



1 The transportation of meat or meat-food product from one point in a State or 
Territory to another point in the same State or Territory, when in course of ship- 
ment the meat or meat-food product is taken through another State or Terriory, is 
interstate commerce. 

- Formerly Regulation 52, B. A. I. Order 137. 



ii8 Chap. IV. Regulations Governing Meat Inspection of U. S., etc. 

passed or exempted from inspection, according to act of Congress of June 30, 1906 : 
Provided, That printed certificates in the forms formerly required and now on hand 
may be used for this purpose. It is necessary, as old stocks of printed certificates 
are exhausted, that new ones be printed in the new forms. 

Section 8.1 When any shipment of meat or meat-food products covered by 
these regulations is offered to any common carrier for carriage within the United 
States as a part of a foreign movement, the same certificate shall be required as if 
ihe shipment was destined to a point within the United States. 

Section g.'~ Paragraph i. Shipments of inspected and passed meat or meat- 
food products that are so marked may be diverted from the original destination 
without a reinspection of the product, if a new certificate showing the changed 
destination be given to the carrier by the owner or shipper, who may or may not 
be the original shipper ; or in case of a wreck or other extraordinary emergency the 
carrier may divert such shipments from the original destination without a new 
shippers' certificate. 

Paragraph 2. The Government seals on a car containing inspected and passed 
meat or meat-food products may be broken by the carrier in case of wreck or other 
extraordinary emergency, and if necessary the product may be reloaded into another 
car or the shipment may be diverted from the original destination without another 
shipper's certificate ; but in all such cases the carrier shall immediately report the 
transaction by telegraph to the Chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry, Washington. 
D. C. Such report shall include the information indicated below : 

(a) Nature of the emergency. 

{b) Place where seals were broken. 

(c) Original points of shipment and destination. 

(rf) Number and initials of the original car. 

{e) Number and initials of the car into which the product is reloaded. 

if) New destination of the shipment. 

ig) Kind and amount of product. 

Section lo.^ Reshipments of inspected meat or meat-food products which arc 
sound and wholesome at the time of reshipment may be made without reinspection 
when the meat or meat-food products, or the containers thereof, are marked 
"Inspected and Passed," and the meat or meat-food products have not been proc- 
essed since they were originally shipped under section 11 of this regulation. Also 
jobbers, wholesalers, or others who do no processing, and who receive "Inspected 
and Passed" meat or meat-food products, may break bulk, repack, and reship the 
same into interstate commerce under section 11 of this regulation, if each piece of 
meat or meat-food product in the unmarked package bears the original authorized 
mark of Government inspection. Inspection shall be maintained at the establish- 
ments of all such jobbers, wholesalers, or others who do any processing. 

Section ii.^ When any carcass, part of carcass, or meat- food product of cattle, 
sheep, swine, or goats, which has been inspected and passed and so marked under 
these regulations is offered to any common carrier for transportation from one State 
or Territory or the District of Columbia to another State or Territory or the 
District of Columbia for interstate shipment only, or for interstate shipment as part 
of a foreign movement, or for foreign shipment, the person, firm, or corporation 
offering such carcass, part of carcass, or meat-food product shall make a certificate in 
the following form and deliver the same to the said common carrier, except as pro- 
vided in section 12 of this regulation : 



1 Formerly Regulation 52, B. A. I. Order 137. 

2 Former'y Meat Inspection Rulings t A. 

'■ Formerly Regulation 53, B. A. I. Order 137. 



Transportations 119 

Date 190... 



Name of common carrier. 

vShipper 

Point of shipment 

Consignee. 

Destination 



I hereby certify that the meat or meat-food products described herein, which 
are offered for shipment in interstate or foreign commerce, have been inspected and 
passed according to act of Congress of June 30, 1906, are so marked, and at this date 
are sound, healthful, wholesome, and fit for human food. 

Kind of product Amount and weight 



(Signature of shipper) 



(Address of shipper) 

This certificate may be stamped upon or incorporated in any form which is regu- 
larly or ordinarily used in the shipment of meat or meat-food products. 

Section 12.1 Paragraph i. An official establishment may ship from the said 
establishment to . any other official establishment any meat or meat-food product 
which has been inspected and passed under these regulations without marking the 
same "Inspected and Passed," if such shipment be placed in a railroad car which is 
sealed by an employee of the Bureau of Animal Industry, and provided that not 
less than 25 per cent, of the contents of each car consists of meat or meat-food 
products not marked "Inspected and Passed." 

Paragraph 2. Wagons so equipped that they can be securely sealed by a Depart- 
ment employee may be considered as true containers. 

Paragraph 3. When shipments are made under paragraph i of this section the 
shipper shall make for each car and deliver to the common carrier in duplicate a 
certificate in the following form : 

Date 190. . . 

Name of common carrier 

Establishment number of consignor 

Point of shipment 

Establishment number of consignee 

Destination 

Car number and initials 

I hereby certify that the following-described meat or meat-food products have 
been inspected and passed according to act of Congress of June 30, 1906. They are 



1 Formerly Regulation 54, B. A. I. Order 137. 



I20 Chap. IV. Regulations Governing Meat Inspection of U. S., etc. 

not marked "Inspected and Passed," but have been placed in the above car under 
the supervision of an employee of the Bureau of Animal Industry which was sealed 
by him with Government seals Nos and 

Kind of product Amount and weight 



(Signature of shipper) 



(Address of shipper) 

The duplicate certificate shall be forwarded immediately by the initial carrier to 
the Chief of the Bureai: of Animal Industry, Washington, D. C. Attention is 
directed to the law which provides a penalty of fine and imprisonment for any 
unauthorized person who breaks a seal on such cars. 

When shipments are made under this section the inspector in charge at point 
of origin shall duly notify the Chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry and the 
inspector in charge at point of destination. 

Section 13.1 When any carcass, part of carcass, or meat-food product of cattle, 
sheep, swine, or goats which has not been inspected under these regulations is offered 
for shipment from one State or Territory or the District of Columbia to another 
State or Territory or the District of Columbia by any retail butcher or retail dealer 
who holds a certificate of exemption issued by the Secretary of Agriculture, the 
common carrier shall require a certificate to be made in duplicate in the following 
form by said retail butcher or retail dealer, which certificate shall in all cases show 
the exemption number designated by the Secretary of Agriculture for said retail 
butcher or retail dealer : 

Date 190. . . 

Name of common carrier 

Shipper 

Point of shipment 

Consignee 

Destination 

Number of exemption certificate 

I hereby certify that I am a retail butcher or a retail dealer in meat or meat-food 
products ; that the following-described meat or meat-food products are offered for 
shipment in interstate commerce to a customer, as exempted from inspection accord- 
ing to act of Congress of June 30, 1906, under certificate issued to me by the United 
States Department of Agriculture, and that at this date they are sound, healthful, 
wholesome, and fit for human food, and contain no preservative or coloring matter 
or other substance prohibited by the regulations of the Secretary of Agriculture 
governing meat inspection. 



^ Formerly Regulation 55, B. A. I. Order 137. 



Transportations I2T 

Kind of product Amount and weight 



(Signature of shipper) 



(Address of shipper) 

The duplicate certificate shall be forwarded immediately by the initial carrier 
to the Chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry, Washington, D. C. This certificate 
shall be separate and apart from any waybill, bill of lading, or other form ordinarily 
used in the shipment of meat. 

•Section 14.^ When any cattle, sheep, swine, or goats have been slaughtered by 
any farmer on the farm, and the carcasses, parts of carcasses, or meat-food products 
thereof are offered to any common carrier for transportation from one State or Ter- 
ritory or the District of Columbia to another State or Territory or the District of 
Columbia, the common carrier may so transport such carcasses, parts of carcasses, 
or meat-food products as long as the same may be identified as of animals 
slaughtered by any farmer on the farm. 

The common carrier shall require a certificate in duplicate in the following 
form : 

Date 190. . . 

Name of common carrier 

Shipper 

Consignee 

Point of shipment 

Destination 

I hereby certify that the following-described uninspected meat or meat-food 
products are from animals slaughtered by a farmer on the farm, and are offered 
for transportation in interstate commerce as exempted from inspection according to 
act of Congress of June 30, 1906, and that at this date they are sound, healthful, 
wholesome, and fit for human food, and contain no preservative or coloring matter 
or other substance prohibited by the regulations of the Secretary of Agriculture 
governing meat inspection. 

Kind of product Amount and weight 



(Signature of shipper) 



(Address of shipper) 

The duplicate certificate shall be forwarded immediately by the initial carrier to 
the Chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry, Washington, D. C. 



1 Formerly Regulation 56, B. A. I. Order 137. 



122 Chap. IV. Regulations Governing Meat Inspection of U. S., etc. 

Section 15.1 All original certificates delivered to the common carrier, as 
required by this regulation, shall be filed and retained for one year by the initial 
carrier, in order that they may be readily checked by this Department in such man- 
ner as the Secretary of Agriculture may from time to time prescribe.- 

Section 16.^ All waybills, transfer bills, running slips, or conductor's cards 
accompanying an interstate or foreign shipment of meat or meat-food product must 
have embodied in, stamped upon, or attached to it a signed statement which shall be 
evidence to connecting carriers that the proper shipper's certificate as required by 
sections 11, 12, 13, and 14 of this regulation is on file with the initial carrier, and no 
connecting carrier shall receive for transportation or transport any interstate or 
foreign shipment of meat or meat-food product unless the waybill, transfer bill, run- 
ning slip, or conductor's card accompanying the same includes the aforesaid signed 
statement in one of the following forms : 

When shipment is made under section 11 or 12: 

(Name of transportation company) 
United States inspected and passed as evidenced by shipper's certificate on file 
with initial carrier. 

(Signed; , Agent. 

When shipment is made under section 13 or 14: 

(Name of transportation company.) 
Exempted from inspection as evidenced by shipper's certificate on file with 
initial carrier. 

(Signed I , Agent. 

Section 17.* Paragraph i. When any carcass, part of carcass, or meat-food 
product of cattle, sheep, swine, or goats loaded on a truck, wagon, cart, or other 
vehicle, or otherwise prepared for shipment, is oifered for transportation or trans- 
ported by ferry, such ferry being the initial carrier from one State, Territory, or 
the District of Columbia to another State, Territory, or the District of Columbia, 
the person, firm, or corporation ofifering such carcass, part of carcass, or meat-food 
product shall, except as hereinafter provided by paragraph 5, make a certificate in 
one of the forms hereinafter indicated and deliver the certificate to said common 
carrier; and no person, firm, or corporation operating a ferry line as aforesaid shall 
receive for transportation or transport any carcass, part of carcass, or meat-food 
product of cattle, sheep, swine, or goats loaded on a truck, wagon, cart, or other 
vehicle, or in any other manner prepared for transportation, unless a certificate in 
one of the forms referred to is properly filled out and delivered by the shipper as 
herein required. 

Paragraph 2. When the shipment consists of inspected and passed meat or meat- 
food products, the form of certificate shown in section 11 of this regulation shall 
be used. 

Paragraph 3. When the shipment is made under exemption and consists of 
meat or meat-food product which has not been inspected and passed, the form of 



1 Formerly Regulation 57, B. A. I. Order 137. 

2 Stocks of printed certificates now on hand may be used, but as new supplies are 
printed they should conform to the forms prescribed. 

3 Formerly Regulation 58, B. A. I. Order 137. 

4 Formerly Regulation 65, B. A. I. Order 137. 



Transportations 123 

certificate shown in section 13 of this regulation shall be used, and a duplicate 
shall be forwarded immediately by the ferry company to the Chief of the Bureau of 
Animal Industry, Washington, D. C. 

Paragraph 4. When the shipment consists of meat or meat-food products from 
animals slaughtered by a farmer on the farm and which have not been inspected and 
passed, the form of certificate shown in section 14 of this regulation shall be used, 
and a duplicate shall be forwarded imm.ediately by the ferry company to the Chief 
of the Bureau of Animal Industry, Washington, D. C. 

Paragraph 5. When a shipper's certificate for meat or meat-food products has 
been issued and is on file with the initial carrier and that fact is shown by notation 
on the billing, the ferry company need not require another certificate. 

Section 18.1 Imported meat or meat-food products which have not been mixed 
or compounded with or added to domestic meat or meat-food products may be trans- 
ported by any common carrier from one State or Territory or the District of Colum- 
bia into another State or Territory or the District of Columbia if the packages con- 
taming them are marked "Inspected under the Food and Drugs Act of June 30, 1906," 
when received for transportation. 

Section 19.2 Paragraph i. Meat or meat-food products which have been 
inspected and passed and so marked, and which have been transported from the 
establishments in which they were prepared into the channels of trade, and which 
are alleged or known to have become unsound, unwholesome, or otherwise unfit for 
human food, may be transported in interstate commerce only under the following 
restrictions : 

Paragraph 2. Meat or meat-food products inspected and passed and so marked 
and which are alleged to be unsound, unwholesome, or otherwise unfit for human 
food may be shipped from one State or Territory or the District of Columbia to any 
official establishment in the same or a different State or Territory if a written permit 
in duplicate for such shipment be first obtained from the inspector in charge of the 
establishment to which the shipment is destined. In all such shipments both the 
original and duplicate copies of the permits shall be surrendered to the carrier 
accepting the meat or meat-food product, and the carrier shall require the shipper 
to furnish three copies of the form of certificate hereinafter given. One of these 
certificates and the duplicate copy of the permit shall be retained by the carrier; 
another copy of the certificate, together with the original permit, shall be mailed by 
the carrier to the Chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry, Washington, D. C, and 
the third copy of the certificate shall be addressed and mailed by the carrier to the 
Bureau of Animal Industry inspector in charge at the point to which the shipment 
is consigned. Upon the arrival of the shipment at the establishment the inspector 
in charge shall cause a careful inspection to be made of the shipment, to determine 
whether or not it is unsound, unwholesome, or otherwise unfit for food. Should 
the meat or meat-food product contained in the shipment prove to be unsound, 
unwholesome, or otherwise unfit for human food, it shall at once be stamped "U. S. 
Inspected and Condemned" and be immediately tanked or removed to the con- 
demned room. If the meat or meat-food product contained in the shipment shall 
prove to be sound, wholesome, and fit for human food, the inspector shall allow the 
meat or meat-food product to enter the establishment. Meat or meat-food products 
at an official establishment alleged or known to be unsound, unwholesome, or other- 
wise unfit for human food shall not be shipped under this paragraph, but must be 
disposed of at the establishment. 



1 Formerly Regulation 64, B. A. I. Order 137. 
- Formerly Regulation 61, B. A. I. Order 137. 



124 Chap. IV. Regulations Governing Meat Inspection of U. S., etc. 

Paragraph 3. Meat or meat-food products which have been inspected and 
passed and are so marked and are alleged to be unsound, unwholesome, or other- 
wise unfit for human food may be returned from one State or Territory or the Dis- 
trict of Columbia to any jobber, wholesaler, or other dealer from whom the said meat 
or meat-food product was purchased, if a written permit, in duplicate, for such 
shipment be first obtained from the Chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry. In 
all such shipments both the original and duplicate copies of the permits shall be sur-. 
rendered to the carrier accepting the meat or meat-food product, and the carrier 
shall require the shipper to furnish two copies of the form of certificate hereinafter 
given. One of these certificates and the duplicate copy of the permit shall be 
retained by the carrier, and the other copy of the certificate, together with the orig- 
inal permit, shall be mailed by the carrier to the Chief of the Bureau of Animal 
Industry, Washington, D. C. If the meat or meat-food product which is shipped 
under this section shall prove to be unsound, unwholesome, or otherwise unfit for 
human food it may be reshipped in interstate commerce as a food product. 

Paragraph 4. The shippers' certificate required by paragraphs 2 and 3 of this 
section shall be in the following form, and shall in all cases show a description and 
the weight of the meat or meat-food product r^ 

Date 190. . . 

Name of common carrier 

Consignor 

Point of shipment 

Consignee 

Destination 

Number of permit 

I hereby certify that the following-described meat or meat-food products have 
been inspected and passed according to the act of Congress of June 30, 1906, and are 
so marked. It is alleged that the said meat or meat-food products are unsound, 
unhealthful, unwholesome, and unfit for human food. 

Kind of product Amount and weight 



(Signature of shipper) 
(Business or occupation of shipper) 
(x\ddress of shipper) 



As evidence to connecting carriers that the proper shipper's certificate as required 
by this paragraph is on file with the initial carrier, the waybills, transfer bills, run- 
ning slips, or conductor's cards accompanying the shipments of meat or meat-food 



^ Attention is directed to the meat-inspection law, which provides a penalty of 
a fine of $10,000 and imprisonment for two years for any person who ships for 
human consumption in interstate or foreign trade anj^ meat or meat-food product 
which is unsound, unwholesome, or otherwise unfit for human food. 



Transportations 125 

products, made under paragraphs 2 and 3 of this section, must have embodied in, 
stamped upon, or attached to the same a signed statement in the following form : 

(Name of railroad company) 
Meat or meat-food product alleged to be unsound, unwholesome, or otherwise unfit 
for food, as evidenced by shipper's certificate on file with initial carrier. 

(Signed) Ageni. 

Paragraph 5. Uninspected meat or meat-food product, or meat or meat-food 
product inspected and marked and which is known to have become unsound, 
unwholesome, or otherwise unfit for human food, or inedible grease or tallow or 
other fat, may be shipped from one State or Territory or the District of Columbia 
to another State or Territory or the District of Columbia or to a foreign country 
for industrial purposes. No such shipment shall be accepted by any carrier unless 
and until the product which is known to be unsound, unwholesome, or otherwise 
unfit for food shall have been denatured or otherwise rendered unavailable for food 
purposes. The carrier shall require the shipper to certify in writing that the meat 
or meat-food product has been so denatured or otherwise rendered unavailable for 
food purposes. This certificate of the shipper that the meat or meat-food product 
has been denatured shall be forwarded by the carrier to the Chief of the Bureau of 
Animal Industry, Washington, D. C. It is suggested that the shipper's certificate of 
denaturing required for shipments made under this paragraph be in the following 
form : 

Date 190. . . 

Name of common carrier 

Consignor 

Point of shipment 

Consignee 

Destination 

I hereby certify that the following-described inedible meat or meat-food products 
have been denatured or otherwise rendered unavailable for food purposes. 

Kind of product - Amount and weight 



(Signature of shipper) 
(Business or occupation of shipper) 
(Address of shipper) 



As evidence to connecting carriers that the proper shipper's certificate is on 
file with the initial carrier, the waybills, transfer bills, running slips, or conductor's 
cards accompanying the shipment of meat or meat-food products under this para- 
graph must have embodied in, stamped upon, or attached to the same a signed state- 
ment in the following form : 



126 Chap. IV. Regulations Governing Meat Inspection of U. S., etc. 

(Name of railroad companjO 
Unsound, unwholesome, or otherwise unfit for food, and denatured or other- 
wise rendered unavailible for food purposes, as evidenced by shipper's certificate on 
file with the initial carrier. 

(Signed) Agent. 

Regulation 26, Counterfeiting, etc, 

Section i. It is a misdemeanor, punishable by fine and imprisonment, for any 
person, firm, or corporation, or officer, agent, or employee thereof to forge, counter- 
feit, simulate, or falsely represent, or without proper authority to use, fail to use, or. 
detach, or knowingly or wrongfully to alter, deface, or destroy, or to fail to deface 
or destroy any of the marks, stamps, tags, labels or other identification devices pro- 
vided for by law or by these regulations, on any carcasses, parts of carcasses, or the 
food product, or the containers thereof, or wrongfully to use, deface, or destroy any 
certificate provided for by law or by these regulations. 

Regulation 27, Reports 

Section i. Reports of the work of inspection carried on in every official estab- 
lishment shall be forwarded to the Deparlment by the inspector in charge, on such 
blank forms and in such manner as may be specified by the Chief of the Bureau of 
Animal Industry. 

Section 2. The proprietors of official establishments shall furnish daily to the 
Department employees detailed to the various departments accurate information 
regarding receipts, shipments, and amounts of products on which to base their daily 
reports. 

Section 3. Reports on sanitation shall be made at stated times by the Depart 
ment employees in charge of the various departments to the inspector in charge of 
the station, and by the inspector in charge to the Chief of the Bureau of Animal 
Industry. If any insanitary conditions are detected by any Department employee, 
such conditions shall be reported immediately to the inspector in charge, who, after 
investigation, shall report them to the Chief of the Bureau. 

Regulation 28, Appeals 

Section i. When the action of any inspector in condemning any carcass or part 
thereof, meat, or meat-food product is questioned, appeal may be made to the inspec- 
tor in charge, and from his decision appeal may be made to the Chief of the Bureau 
of Animal Industry or to the Secretary of Agriculture, whose decision shall be final. 

Regulation 29, Cooperation with Municipal Authorities 

Section i. Inspectors in charge are direc:ed to notify the municipal authorities 
of the character of inspection, and upon request to advise with such authorities with 
2 view to preventing the entry into the local marke.s of diseased animals or theit 
products. The details of any proposed cooperative arrangement must be first sub- 
mitted to and approved by the Chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry. 



Law Under Which the Foregoing Regulations Are Made 127 



1, Law Under Which the Foregoing Regulations Are Made 

Extract from an act of Cortgress entitled "An act making apprbpriations for the 
Department of Agriculture for the fiscal year ending June thirtieth, nineteen hun- 
dred and seven," approved June 30, 1906 (34 Stat., 674). 

The Meat/'inspection Amendment 

That for the purpose of preventing the use in interstate or foreign commerce, as 
hereinafter provided, of meat and meat-food products which are unsound, unhealth- 
ful, unwholesome, or otherwise unfit for human food, the Secretary of Agriculture, 
at his discretion, may cause to be made, by inspectors appointed for that purpose, an 
examination and inspection of all cattle, sheep, swine, and goats before they shall be 
allo'^ed to enter into any slaughtering, packing, meat-canning, rendering, or similar 
establishment, in which they are to be slaughtered and the meat and meat-food 
products thereof are to be used in interstate or foreign commerce ; and all cattle, 
swine, sheep, and goats found on such inspection to show symptoms of disease shall 
be set apart and slaughtered separately from all other cattle, sheep, swine, or goats, 
and when so slaughtered the carcasses of said cattle, sheep, swine, or goats shall be 
subject to a careful examination and inspection, all as provided by the rules and 
regulations to be prescribed by the Secretary of Agriculture as herein provided for. 

That for the purposes hereinbefore set forth the Secretary of Agriculture shall 
cause to be made by inspectors appointed for that purpose, as hereinafter provided, 
a post-mortem examination and inspection of the carcasses and parts thereof of all 
cattle, sheep, swine, and goats to be prepared for human consumption at any slaught- 
ering, meat-canning, salting, packing, rendering, or similar establishment in any 
State, Territory, or the District of Columbia for transportation or sale as articles of 
interstate or foreign commerce ; and the carcasses and parts thereof of all such ani- 
mals found to be sound, healthful, wholesome, and fit for human food shall be 
marked, stamped, tagged, or labeled as "Inspected and Passed;" and said inspectors 
shall label, mark, stamp, or tag as "Inspected and Condemned," all carcasses and 
parts thereof of animals found to be unsound, unhealthful, unwholesome, or other- 
wise unfit for human food ; and all carcasses and parts thereof thus inspected and 
condemned shall be destroyed for food purposes by the said establishment in the 
presence of an inspector, and the Secretary of Agriculture may remove inspectors 
from any such establishment which fails to so destroy any such condemned carcass 
or part thereof, and said inspectors, after said first inspection shall, when they deem 
it necessary, reinspect said carcasses or parts thereof to determine whether since the 
first inspection the same have become unsound, unhealthful, unwholesome, or in any 
way unfit for human food, and if any carcass or any part thereof shall, upon exami- 
nation and inspection subsequent to the first examination and inspection, be found 
to be unsound, unhealthful, unwholesome, or otherwise unfit for human food, it shall 
be destroyed for food purposes by the said establishment in the presence of an 
inspector, and the Secretary of Agriculture may remove inspectors from any estab- 
hshment which fails to so destroy any such condemned carcass or part thereof. 

The foregoing provisions shall apply to all carcasses or parts of carcasses of 
cattle, sheep, swine, and goats, or the meat or meat products thereof which may be 
brought into any slaughtering, meat-canning, salting, packing, rendering, or similar 
establishment, and such examination and inspection shall be had before the said 
carcasses or parts thereof shall be allowed to enter into any department wherein the 
same are to be treated and prepared for meat-food products ; and the foregoing pro- 
visions shall also apply to all such products which, after having been issued from 
any slaughtering, meat-canning, salting, packing, rendering, or similar establish- 
ment, shall be returned to the same or to any similar establishment where such 
inspection is maintained. 

That for the purposes hereinbefore set forth the Secretary of Agriculture shall 
cause to be made by inspectors appointed for that purpose an examination and 
inspection of all meat-food products prepared for interstate or foreign commerce in 
any slaughtering, meat-canning, salting, packing, rendering, or similar establishment, 
and for the purposes of any examination and inspection said inspectors shall have 
access at all times, by day or night, whether the establishment be operated or not, 
to every part of said establishment ; and said inspectors shall mark, stamp, tag, or 



128 Chap. IV. Regulations Governing Meat Inspection of U. S., etc. 

label as ' ' Inspected and Passed ' ' all such products found to be sound, healthful, and 
wholesome, and which contain no dyes, chemicals, preservatives, or ingredients which 
render such meat or meat-food products unsound, unhealthful, unwholesome, or 
unfit for human food ; and said inspectors shall label, mark, stamp, or tag as 
"Inspected and Condemned" all such products found unsound, unhealthful, and 
unwholesome, or which contain dyes, chemicals, preservatives, or ingredients which 
render such meat or meat-food products unsound, unhealthful, unwholesome, or unfit 
for human food, and all such condemned meat-food products shall be destroyed for 
food purposes, as hereinbefore provided, and the Secretary of Agriculture may 
remove inspectors from any establishinent which fails to so destroy such con- 
demned meat-food products: Provided, That, subject to the rules and regulations 
of the Secretary of Agriculture, the provisions hereof in regard to preservatives shall 
not apply to meat-food products for export to any foreign country, and which are 
prepared or packed according to the specifications or directions of the foreign pur- 
chaser, when no substance is used in the preparation or packing thereof in conflict 
with the laws of the foreign country to which said article is to be exported ; but if 
said article shall be in fact sold or offered for sale for domestic use or consumption, 
then this proviso shall not exempt said article from the operation of all the other 
provisions of this act. 

That when any meat or meat-food product prepared for interstate or foreign 
commerce which has been inspected as hereinbefore provided and marked "Inspected 
and Passed" shall be placed or packed in any can, pot, tin, canvas, or other recep- 
tacle or covering in an\' establishment where inspection under the provisions of this 
act is maintained, the person, firm, or corporation preparing said product shall cause 
a label to be attached to said can, pot, tin, canvas, or other receptacle or covering, 
under the supervision of an inspector, which label shall state that the contents thereof 
have been "Inspected and Passed" under the provisions of this act; and no inspec- 
tion and examination of meat or meat-food products deposited or enclosed in cans, 
tins, pots, canvas, or other receptacle or covering in any establishment where inspec- 
tion under the provisions of this act is maintained shall be deemed to be complete 
until such meat or meat-food products have been sealed or inclosed in said can, tin, 
pot, canvas, or other receptacle or covering under the supervision of an inspector, 
and no such meat or meat-food products shall be sold or offered for sale by any per- 
son, firm, or corporation in interstate or foreign commerce under any false or decep- 
tive name; but established trade name or names which are usual to such products 
and which are not false and deceptive and which shall be approved by the Secretary 
of Agriculture are permitted. 

The Secretary of Agriculture shall cause to be made, by experts in sanitation or 
by other competent inspectors, such inspection of all slaughtering, meat-canning, salt- 
ing, packing, rendering, or similar establishments in which cattle, sheep, swine, and 
goats are slaughtered and the meat and meat-food products thereof are prepared for 
interstate or foreign commerce as may be necessary to inform himself concerning the 
sanitary conditions of the same, and to prescribe tlie rules and regulations of sanita- 
tion under which such establishments shall be maintained ; and where the sanitary 
conditions of any such establishment are such that the meat or meat-food products 
are rendered unclean, unsound, unhealthful, unwholesome, or otherwise unfit for 
himian food, he shall refuse to allow said meat or meat-food products to be labeled, 
marked, stamped, or tagged as "Inspected and Passed." 

That the Secretary of Agriculture shall cause an examination and inspection of 
all cattle, sheep, swine, and goats, and the food products thereof, slaughtered and 
prepared in the establishments hereinbefore described for the purposes of interstate 
or foreign commerce to be made during the nighttime as well as during the day- 
time when the slaughtering of said cattle, sheep, swine, and goats, or the preparation 
of said food products is conducted during the nighttime. 

That on and after October first, nineteen hundred and six, no person, firm, or 
corporation shall transport or offer for transportation, and no carrier of interstate or 
foreign commerce shall transport or receive for transportation from one State or 
Territory or the District of Columbia to any other State or Territory or the District 
of Columbia, or to any place under the jurisdiction of the United States, or to any 
foreign country, any carcasses or parts thereof, meat, or meat-food products thereof, 
which have not been inspected, examined, and marked as "Inspected and Passed," 
in accordance with the terms of this act and with the rules and regulations prescribed 
by the Secretary of Agriculture: Provided. That all meat and meat-food products 
on hand on October first, nineteen hundred and six, at establishments where inspec- 
tion has not been maintained, or which have been inspected under existing law. 



Law Under Which the Foregoing Regulations Are Made 129 

shall be examined and labeled under such rules and regulations as the Secretary of 
Agriculture shall prescribe, and then shall be allowed to be sold in interstate or for- 
eign commerce. 

That no person, firm, or corporation, or officer, agent, or employee thereof, shall 
forge, counterfeit, simulate, or falsely represent, or shall without proper authority 
use, fail to use, or detach, or shall knowingly or wrongfully alter, deface, or destroy, 
or fail to deface or destroy, any of the marks, stamps, tags, labels, or other identifi- 
cation devices provided for in this act, or in and as directed by the rules and regu- 
lations prescribed hereunder by the Secretary of Agriculture, on any carcasses, parts 
of carcasses, or the food product, or containers thereof, subject to the provisions of 
this act, or any certificate in relation thereto, authorized or required by this act or 
by the said rules and regulations of the Secretary of Agriculture. 

That the Secretary of Agriculture shall cause to be made a careful inspection of 
all cattle, sheep, swine, and goats intended and offered for export to foreign coun- 
tries at such times and places, and in such manner as he may deem proper, to ascer- 
tain whether such cattle, sheep, swine, and goats are free from disease. 

•And for this purpose he may appoint inspectors who shall be authorized to give 
an official certificate clearly stating the condition in which such cattle, sheep, swine, 
and goats are found. 

And no clearance shall be given to any vessel having on board cattle, sheep, 
swine, or goats for export to a foreign country until the owner or shipper of such 
cattle, sheep, swine, or goats has a certificate from the inspector herein authorized to 
be appointed, stating that the said cattle, sheep, swine, or goats are sound and 
healthy, or unless the Secretary of Agriculture shall have waived the requirement 
of such certificate for export to the particular country to which such cattle, sheep, 
swine, or goats are to be exported. 

That the Secretary of Agriculture shall also cause to be made a careful inspec- 
tion of the carcasses and parts thereof of all cattle, sheep, swine, and goats, the 
meat of which, fresh, salted, canned, corned, packed, cured, or otherwise prepared, is 
intended and offered for export to any foreign country, at such times and places and 
in such manner as he may deem proper. 

And for this purpose he may appoint inspectors who shall be authorized to give 
an official certificate stating the condition in which said cattle, sheep, swine, or 
goats, and the meat thereof, are found. 

And no clearance shall be given to any vessel having on board any fresh, salted, 
canned, corned, or packed beef, mutton, pork, or goat meat, being the meat of ani- 
mals killed after the passage of this act, or except as hereinbefore provided for 
export to and sale in a foreign country from any port in the United States, until the 
owner or shipper thereof shall obtain from an inspector appointed under the provi- 
sions of this act a certificate that the said cattle, sheep, swine, and goats were sound 
and healthy at the time of inspection, and that their meat is sound and wholesome, 
unless the Secretary of Agriculture shall have waived the requirements of such cer- 
tificate for the country to which said cattle, sheep, swine, and goats or meats are to 
be exported. 

That the inspectors provided for herein shall be authorized to give official certifi- 
cates of the sound and wholesome condition of the cattle, sheep, swine, and goats, 
their carcasses and products as herein described, and one copy of every certificate 
granted under the provisions of this act shall be filed in the Department of Agricul- 
ture, another copy shall be delivered to the owner or shipper, and when the cattle, 
sheep, swine, and goats or their carcasses and products are sent abroad, a third copy 
shall be delivered to the chief officer of the vessel on which the shipment shall be 
made. 

That no person, firm, or corporation engaged in the interstate commerce of meat 
or meat-food products shall transport or offer for transportation, sell or offer to sell 
any such meat or meat-food products in any State or Territory or in the District of 
Columbia or any place under the jurisdiction of the United States, other than in the 
State or Territory or in the District of Columbia or any place under the jurisdic- 
tion of the United States in which the slaughtering, packing, canning, rendering, or 
other similar establishment owned, leased, operated by said firm, person, or corpor- 
ation is located unless and until said person, firm, or corporation shall have com- 
plied with all of the provisions of this act. 

That any person, firm, or corporation, or any officer or agent of any such person, 
firm, or corporation, who shall violate any of the provisions of this act shall be 
deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and shall be punished on conviction thereof by a 
fine of not exceeding ten thousand dollars or imprisonment for a period not more 
than two years, or by both such fine and imprisonment, in the discretion of the court 
10 



130 Chap. I\'. Regulations Governing' Meat Inspection of U. S., etc. 

That the Secretary of Agriculture shall appoint from time to time inspectors to 
make examination and inspection of all cattle, sheep, swine, and goats, the inspec- 
tion of which is hereby provided for, and of all carcasses and parts thereof, and of 
all meats and meat-food products thereof, and of the sanitary conditions of all 
establishments in which such meat and meat-food products hereinbefore described 
are prepared; and said inspectors shall refuse to stamp, mark, tag, or label any car- 
cass or any part thereof, or meat-food product therefrom, prepared in any estab- 
lishment hereinbefore mentioned, until the same shall have actually been inspected 
and found to be sound, healthful, wholesome, and fit for human food, and to con- 
tain no dyes, chemicals, preservatives, or ingredients which render such meat-food 
product unsound, unhealthful, unwholesome, or imfit for human food ; and to have 
been prepared under proper sanitary conditions, hereinbefore provided for; and shall 
perform such other duties as are provided b}' this act and by the rules and regula- 
tions to be prescribed by said Secretary of Agriculture; and said Secretar}^ of Agri- 
culture shall, from time to time, make such rules and regulations as are necessary 
for the efficient execution of the provisions of this act, and all inspections and exam- 
inations made under this act shall be such and made in such manner as described in 
the rules and regulations prescribed by said Secretary of Agriculture not incon- 
sistent with the provisions of this act. 

That any person, firm, or corporation, or any agent or employee of any person, 
firm, or corporation, who shall give, paj-, or offer, directly or indirectly, to any 
inspector, deputy inspector, chief inspector, or any other officer or employee of the 
United States authorized to perform any of the duties prescribed by this act or by 
the rules and regulations of the Secretarj' of Agriculture an}' money or other thing 
of value, with intent to influence said inspector, deputy inspector, chief inspector, or 
other officer or employee of the United States in the discharge of any duty herein 
provided for, shall be deemed guilty of a felony and, upon conviction thereof, shall 
be punished by a fine not less than five thousand dollars nor more than ten thousand 
dollars and bj' imprisonment not less than one year nor more than three years ; and 
any inspector, deput}' inspector, chief inspector, or other officer or emplo^^ee of the 
United States authorized to perform any of the duties prescribed by this act who 
shall accept any money, gift, or other thing of value from any person, firm, or cor- 
poration, or oflficers, agents, or employees thereof, given with intent to influence his 
official action, or who shall receive or accept from any person, firm, or corporation 
engaged in interstate or foreign commerce any gift, uioney, or other thing of A-alue 
given with any purpose or intent whatsoever, shall be deemed guilty of a felony 
and shall, upon conviction thereof, be summarily discharged from office and shall be 
punished by a fine not less than one thousand dollars nor more than ten thousand 
dollars and by imprisonment not less than one year nor more than three years. 

That the provisions of this act requiring inspection to be made by the Secretary 
of Agriculture shall not apply to animals slaughtered by an}- farmer on the farm 
and sold and transported as interstate or foreign commerce, nor to retail butchers 
and retail dealers in meat and meat-food products, supplying their customers : Pro- 
vided, That if any person shall sell or offer for sale or transportation for interstate 
or foreign commerce any meat or meat-food products which are diseased, unsound, 
unhealthful, unwholesome, or otherwise unfit for human food, knowing that such 
meat-food products are intended for human consumption, he shall be guilty of a 
misdemeanor, and on conviction thereof shall be punished b}' a fine not exceeding 
one thousand dollars or by imprisonment for a period of not exceeding one year, or 
by both such fine and imprisonment: Provided also, That the Secretary of Agricul- 
ture is authorized to maintain the inspection in this act provided for at any slaught- 
ering, meat-canning, salting, packing, rendering, or similar establishment notwith- 
standing this exception, and that the persons operating the same may be retail 
butchers and retail dealers or farmers ; and where the Secretary of Agriculture shall 
establish such inspection then the provisions of this act shall apph^ notwithstanding 
this exception. 

That there is permanently appropriated, out of any money in the Treasury not 
otherwise appropriated, the sum of three million dollars, for the expenses of the 
inspection of cattle, sheep, swine, and goats, and the meat and meat-food products 
thereof which enter into interstate or foreign commerce and for all expenses neces- 
sary to carry into effect the provisions of this act relating to meat inspection, includ ■ 
ing rent and the employment of labor in Washington and elsewhere, for each year. 
And the Secretary of Agriculture shall, in his annual estimates made to Congress, 
submit a statement in dead, showing the number of persons emplo^^ed in such 
inspections and the salary or per diem paid to each, together with the contingent 
expenses of such inspectors and where they have been and are employed. 



V. Organization and Methods of Procedure 
of the Inspection Force 

As the n:eat-inspection organization in the United States varies some- 
what from this organization in Germany, it is deemed essential to incor- 
porate in this text-book the conditions applying to the meat-inspection 
force in this country, and also to describe the methods of procedure which 
are required in the execution of the ante-mortem and post-mortem inspec- 
tion by the Government inspector. Inasmuch as this subject is so thor- 
oughly treated by Dr. A. D. Melvin, Chief of the Bureau of Animal 
Industry, in his work on the "Federal IMeat Inspection Service/'^ he will 
be cjuoted in substance in the following : 

1, Personnel of the Inspection Force 

The Bureau's employees are both capable and expert. The men in charge of all 
stations where slaughtering is done, and the men who do the post-mortem work at 
all stations, are veterinarians. These men must first have successfuUj^ completed a 
three years' course in veterinar}' medicine at a reputable veterinary college. The 
Department recognizes only 14 such institutions, excluding several so-called colleges 
that aspire to cover this field of knowledge. The Civil Service Commission examines 
these graduates, and about 50 per cent, of those examined make the recjuired grade 
of 70. 

For the relief of those who think that everything necessary to the appointment 
of a man in this service is a letter written to the Secretary of Agriculture by an 
influential citizen, it may be stated that the Department makes absolutely no perma- 
nent appointments except of men whose names are certified to it by the Civil Service 
Commission. During a period of six months one so appointed is on probation, and 
if he fails to measure up to the requirements he is dropped. If at the end of this six 
months he attains his absolute appointment, he is not at once freed of supervision 
and clothed with full authority to pass or condemn. The force is large, and he is so 
placed on it under experienced inspectors that he may learn the law and regulations 
and the methods of their application. A set of rules, supplemented, of course, by 
some necessary discretion on the part of the heads of the service, govern his 
advancement in authority and salary. On the latter men rests the burden of inspec 
tion. The Bureau holds them responsible, and they well understand that their pro 
motion depends on efficient and faithful service. They haA-e ample opportunity to 
become experts in detecting diseased animals, and they do. The Department 
demands all their time during the working day, and a man must be dull indeed if 
in the days, months, and years spent amid the swift work of the killing floors he 
fails to develop a most masterly dexterity in discovering abnormalities in the car- 
casses that come before him. 



"■■Bureau of Animal Industry Circular 125. 131 



132 Chap. V. Organization and Methods of Procedure, etc. 

The laboratory inspectors constitute another class of employees. They also are 
selected through civil-service examination in the principles of bacteriology and chem- 
istry, with special application to meats. 

A third grade of employee is the inspector's assistant. Being under the direction 
of the veterinarian, he is not required to be himself regularly educated along this line. 
He examines live stock, tags animals, stamps carcasses, seals cars, patrols the houses 
at night, superintends the removal and tanking of condemned carcasses — in short, 
he does everything he can, where expert pathological knowledge is unnecessary, to 
relieve and assist the veterinarian. 

The meat inspector is a fourth class. He is expert in pickling, salting, smoking, 
and otherwise curing meat. He likewise enters the service through the civil-service 
examinations, and his previous exprience is taken into account in grading him. By 
means of the educated senses of sight and smell he can tell when a piece of meat is 
unfit, and he knows whether it is irretrievably bad or whether it can be utilized. 
This class of employees condemned 14,000,000 pounds of meat in the fiscal 
year 1906-7. 

The Bvireau selects certain of the most experienced veterinary inspectors and 
meat inspectors, divides the cotmtry into districts, and sends these men traveling 
through them, visiting every station and every plant. Their visits are unannounced, 
and they submit reports with recommendations to the Washington oiifice. They are 
able, out of their wider experience, to instruct the inspectors in charge at the various 
stations, and their reports are of great value to the Department in its efforts to 
secure a uniform inspection and to learn of insanitary conditions and have them 
corrected. That the regulations are enforced is capable of demonstration by 
an examination of the reports of the number of animals condemned. Other safe- 
guards, however, are provided. The law promises to tine not less than $5,000 and 
to imprison for at least a year any man who gives anything of value, even a piece of 
meat, to a Government employee to influence him in the performance of his duties; 
it is stricter still with such employees, for it holds over them the menace of similar 
fine and imprisonment if they accept anything of value, no matter what the intent 
of the donor or the purpose of the gift may be. It is thus dangerous for the packer 
to bribe, and it is more dangerous still for the employee to accept. 

The Bureau places further obstacles in the way of collusion between inspector 
and owner by frequent changes at the larger stations of employees from house to 
house, and by changes, less frequent, of employees from station to station. It is 
working constantly, also, to secure iniiformity in the inspection at all stations. It 
has a very complex system of reports, and its experts scrutinize these with the view 
of discovering abnormalities in results and making the proper corrections. Again, 
practicalljf all the operations of slaughtering and preparing meats are open to the 
world, and are, indeed, in the larger centers, one of the sights to which visitors 
flock. It is well known that accredited representatives of foreign governments, 
expert and otherwise, see all the processes of inspection, and more than one has 
satisfied himself and his government, sometimes to the surprise of both, that 
inspection is all that it is claimed to be. Publicists also spend days in the stock 
yards and packing houses, embodying the results of their observations in articles that 
have recently been of a more favorable tone than they were one or two years ago. 

On the whole, it is submitted that no material dishonesty in the inspection can 
long exist, in view of the above methods and facts, and owing further to the invol- 
untary espionage that each employee undergoes from his fellow-employees, which, 
while it is not depended upon by the Department, is yet a powerful factor in main- 
taining a strict integrity in the enforcement of the law. 



Action in General 133 

2. The Performance of Ante.-inorteni and Post/mortem 

Inspection 

For the carrying on of the ante-mortem and post-mortem inspection, 
the pubHshed regulations of the imperial meat-inspection law prescribe the 
detailed requirements. Similar instructions for the U. S. Inspector of 
meats are contained in the regulations of the Federal meat-inspection 
service, B. A. I. Order, No. 150. It will, therefore, be necessary to dis- 
cuss here only a few technical and especially important conditions. 

A, Action in General 

m 1. Ante-Tnortem Inspection of Food Animals 

The performance of the ante-mortem inspection is regulated by the 
regulations governing the enforcement of the meat-inspection law, and 
does not necessitate a further explanation for the veterinary inspector. 

Concerning the age of the food animals the most important informa- 
tion has been already given on page 16. 

The influence of transportation on the condition of food animals was 
considered on page 7. 

Regarding the diseases which may be observed, reference should be 
made to Chapter VII. 

Concerning the judgment on living food animals see page 158. That 
under certain conditions the application of slaughter can be permitted 
only after a period of rest, was already mentioned on page 10. The 
inspector has also the authority to request that the slaughter should be 
undertaken at an established hour and in his presence. A reinspection 
must be made should the slaughter have been delayed for over two days 
after permission was granted. 

[The ante-mortem inspection in the United States is governed by 
B. A. I. Order 150, Regulation 11, the carrying out of which is described 
by Dr. A. D. Melvin, in his previously mentioned work, as follows : 

As conducted at present, the first step in actual inspection is the examination of 
the living animal. The law does not absolutely require this, but places it within 
the discretion of the Secretary. Government inspectors make this examination in 
the stock yards or in the pens, alleys, etc., of the establishment by which the animals 
have been bought and in the slaughterhouse of which they are proposed to be 
slaughtered, and no animals which have not undergone this examination are allowed 
to enter the slaughterhouse proper. The pens contain from as low as 10 to as high 
as 200 animals each. The inspector goes into the pen and looks carefully over each 
animal. When he finds one that to his mind is not perfectly sound and healthy he 
or his assistant affixes to its ear a numbered metal tag bearing the words "U. S. 
Suspect." Such animals are segregated and slavightered separately from other 
animals, either before or after the regular course of the killing. If the post-mortem 
examination of an animal does not confirm the suspicions aroused by the appearance 



134 Chap. V. Organization and Methods of Procedure, etc. 



of the live animal, and no lesions of disease are found, the tag is taken off and sent 
lo the office of the inspector in charge of the station, who has already been informed 
of the number of the tag after it was affixed on suspicion, and the carcass is sent 
along as edible meat. If lesions are found which warrant condemnation, the carcass 
is sent to the tank, the tag being removed and taken with a report to the office.] 

2, Inspection of the Slaughtered Animals (Meat Inspection) 

For the examination of the slaughtered animals exact directions are 
given in the regulations of the meat-inspection law. The presence of 
veterinary inspectors at the slaughter is urgently desired in certain dis- 
eases (for instance, peritonitis pleuritis, pericarditis, and certain abscess 
formations). 

Although it is desirable to limit the work of inspection to those hours 
showing sufficient daylight, this cannot always be accomplished for obvi- 
ous reasons. For inspection by artificial light an abundant, and, if possi- 
ble, a white light should be demanded : while in the ambulatory meat- 
inspection, examinations under oil or plain gas light in the winter time 
cannot be entirely prevented, yet they should be positively withheld should 
there be a suspicion of an injurious condition of the entire meat (blood 

poisoning), or even if there are 
color changes of the meat (jaun- 
dice), in which case examinations 
should be made only by daylight. 
Before beginning the examination 
it should be established that not a 
part of the slaughtered animal is 
missing and that nothing has been 
undertaken to change the appear- 
ance of certain parts (scalding of 
the stomachs, mesentery, head, 
feet, etc.). The separation of the 
intestines from the mesentery and 
the emptying of the stomach and 
the intestinal contents, as well as 

Fig. 47. Post-mortem knife and case the cleaning of these parts, can- 
made from nickel, after Albrecht, Dresden, , „ , ., . , 
Veterinary High School. iiot be very well prohibited on ac- 
count of their spoiling, should the 
inspector not be present immediately after the conclusion of the slaughter. 
On the other hand, cutting the mesentery or its further preparation is not 
permissible. 

(a) Technique of the Inspection 

The inspection of the slaughtered animals in accordance with the 
above-mentioned instructions consists in the following : 




Action in General 



135 



1. Inspection of all organs and parts. 

2. Feeling- of certain parts, as lungs, liver, spleen, uterus, udder, 
tongue. 

3. Incising of lymph glands, the location of which is given on page 
43, in connection with figures 21-33 : also muscles, organs with cavities, 

and suspected or diseased parts. How- 
ever this should be restrained as much 
as possible in tuberculosis, suppurations, 
etc., on account of the danger of spread- 
ing the infective substance and the con- 
tamination of the meat with this mate- 
rial. Suitable knives, with cases, espe- 
cially well adapted for the ambulatory 
inspection, and which can be easily 
cleansed and disinfected, are illustrated 
under Figs. 47-49. According to the 
regulations the knives of the inspectors 
should be smooth and free 
from scratches and splits. 
For the disinfection of 
knives and their cases boil- 
ing in a 2 per cent, soda 
solution is sufficient. 

4. Scjueezing out the con- 
tents of the passages and 
the cavities or organs (bile 
ducts of the liver, cut sur- 
face of the lungs, etc.). Be- 
sides, under special condi- 
tions the following addi- 
tional methods may also be 
applied : 

5. Reaction test of mus- 
cles with blue or red litmus 
paper, which after moisten- 
ing should be pressed with 

a forceps or knife against a fresh cut surface of the muscles. In this 
work the cuts must be made at various intervals and in muscles lying at 
various distances apart. (See page 38.) 

6. Microscopic examinations of blood, muscles, various tissues, dis- 
eased parts, secretions and excretions, parasites, etc. 

7. Bacteriological examinations of blood, parenchymatous fluids, 
etc., in infectious diseases. 




Fig. 48. Case for post- 
mortem knives after 
Tempel, of the firm 
Hauptner-Berlin. 



Fig. 49 Post-mor 
tem knife after Koch, 
of the firm Hauptner- 
Berlin. 



136 Chap. V. Organization and Methods of Procedure, etc. 

8. Bacteriological examinations through the inoculation of culture 
media, inoculations of test animals, etc. 

Directions for the technical procedure prescribed for the veterinary 
examination of imported meat have already been given, and they may 
also be applied in the inspection of fresh-slaughtered animals in case of 
necessity. 

A bacteriological meat inspection was first recommended by Basenau for 
doubtful cases of affections, especially in emergency slaughters, in which an unob- 
jectionable positive result cannot be obtained in any other way. In such an inspec- 
tion bacterial blood intoxications are included first of all (see Chap. VII, Sec. 6), 
and a diagnosis even in these cases may prove quite difficult. Basenau himself gives 
the following directions : "It is practicable to undertake the examination 24 hours 
after slaughter, as all the meat-poisoning bacteria grow even at a low temperature, 
thereby increasing their numbers, which facilitates the examination. In this study 
il is presumed that after slaughter the stomach, intestines, etc., were removed in the 
usual order. This exclvides the possibility that bacteria, which may be found in 
the inside of the meat have reached that point through post-mortem invasion from 
the intestines, since, according to our numerous experiences which have recently 
been confirmed by A. Chillees, microorganisms are not present in the inside of the 
meat of healthy animals even after a longer time following slaughter. Then from 
the inside of the meat, which is rich in connective tissue, cover-glass preparations 
are made and gelatin plates are inoculated. Gelatin plates suffice perfectly for this 
purpose, if Forster's gelatin with a high melting point is used. At the same time 
two mice are fed with raw pieces of the meat and two others are fed with meat 
which has been exposed to 100° C. for one hour. 

If there are no microorganisms present in the smear preparations, and if no 
colonies will develop inside of 24 hours on the plates, then the meat should be released 
v/ithout any further action. 

If the presence of bacteria is established as a result of these preparations or 
plates, then the meat should be temporarily held in a suitable place and the results 
of the animal experiments, which, when positive, appear in most cases inside of 
three days, should be taken into consideration for final judgment. Should the mice, 
which were fed with the raw meat die, while those given the boiled meat remain 
well, it serves to prove that through the boiling the toxic substances were destroyed. 
Then, in accordance with present experiences, the meat can be released for con- 
sumption without danger to human health, after a sufficient sterilization in the steam 
apparatus. If there is no sterilizing apparatus present, then the proof of the pres- 
ence of a larger number of bacteria in the meat would be sufficient for its condem- 
nation. Should the mice fed with the boiled material containing the bacteria suc- 
cumb, then the meat should be withheld from commerce and permission should only 
be given for its technical utilization." 

As a simplification of Basenau's plating method Ostertag recommends the 
sowing on slant agar, as agar tubes can be carried easily in a sterile condition. 

V. Drigalski recommends surface sowings on alkaline lactose-litmus-agar with 
particles of the spleen and muscles and besides the inoculation of similar particles 
into slightly alkaline nutrient bouillon at 22° C. until the following day for the pur- 
pose of growing the organism, and then to inoculate new plates from the growth in 
bouillon. If the growth on the plates shows predominantly blueish, transparent 



Action in General 137 

colonies, this is sufficient to suspect the presence of a specific infection of the con- 
cerned animal (baciHus enteritidis, Gartner). For further determinations test 
inoculations have to be undertaken. 

9. Chemical examinations may be necessary for certain purposes 
(testing for the use of preservative substances). 

10. Examination for odor is in many cases requisite. It is espe- 
cially necessary, even though it is not final, in cases where the boiling test 
has to be made for the examination of meat for spoiling. 

11. The boiling test is frequently of great aid in the examination 
of the odor and taste of meat. 

The same should always be carried out with chilled meat 24 hours after 
slaughter, as certain odor and taste peculiarities undergo a change in cooled meat. 
It IS also advisable not to place the meat to be examined into boiling water, but by 
placing it into a covered receptacle with cold water it may be gradually heated to a 
boiling point, and then from time to time the developing steam should be tested 
for the odor. The taste of the meat and the meat broth should be determined after 
the meat is thoroughly boiled through. The boiling test should be especially 
undertaken with the meat of boars, cryptorchids, male goats, emergency slaughtered 
animals, when suspicious of an administration of drugs that may give a taste or odor 
to the meat (also large quantities of iodide of potassium), or inhalation of bad- 
smelling gases and vapors. Further, there are pronounced changes in the odor 
of meat when very offensive abscesses are encapsulated in large body cavities, in 
certain forms of icterus of hogs, in parasitism of calves, etc. 

(b) Procedure of Inspection 

[The procedure of the post-mortem inspection as it is conducted in 
the United States is described by Doctor Melvin in the following : 

At the first exposure of the glands when the head is severed — these being com- 
mon seats of tubercular infection — a Federal inspector makes an examination for 
evidences of disease, himself cutting into the glands, if necessary. Another inspec- 
tor stands at the elbow of the gutter and, as the viscera are revealed, watches with 
practiced eye for abnormalities, carefully examining and handling the various parts 
in order that any obscure indication of disease may be discovered. The Bureau 
requires this inspector to handle the viscera and, if necessary, to cut into them. 
This is rapid as well as exacting work, and the head and visceral inspectors fre- 
quently exchange places, or the visceral inspector is relieved by another, after two 
hours' work. 

When the inspector finds a diseased carcass he attaches to it, by means of a wire 
and seal, a paper tag with the words "U. S. Retained" on it and numbered to corre- 
spond with the number on the stub from which it is taken. He sends the numbered 
stub to the office with his report. The carcass, with the parts that have been separa- 
ted, none of which is allowed to lose its identity, is now sent directly to a compart- 
ment called the "retaining room." The Government requires this important room to 
be rat proof, well lighted, to have floors of cement, or of metal or brick laid in 
cement, and to be provided with facilities for locking. The Government also pro- 



138 Chap. V. Organization and Methods of Procedure, etc. 

vides a special lock for the room, and the keys remain in the custody of the inspec- 
tor. At convenient periods the retained carcasses midergo in this room at the hands 
of other inspectors a more leisurely and careful inspection. 

This is the final step in the post-mortem examination. The inspectors here have 
a good deal of personal discretion. Certain definite rules are laid down by the 
Bureau, but something must be left to the judgment of the inspectors. They must 
pass upon the question of the extent of the affection and decide whether or not the 
whole carcass or only parts of it should go to the tank. Not being pushed by the 
exigencies of the rapid work on the killing beds and the necessity of keeping up 
with the never-ending stream of carcasses, thej^ are deliberate and careful in making 
their examinations and in forming their judgment. Carcasses which they decide to 
be fit for food they permit to be removed and placed with other healthy carcasses, 
which have been passed on the first inspection. They take off the "U. S. Retained'' 
tag, return it with their report to the office, and stamp it "U. S. Inspected and 
passed." 

When their examination confirms the suspicious indications of the first exami- 
nation, however, they stamp conspicuously on the carcass, also on the tag, the 
words "U. S. Inspected and Condemned." The carcass is removed immediately 
from the retaining room under the eye of a Government employee, and goes either 
to the tank or, if it is not convenient to tank it immediately, to the condemned-meat 
room, which, like the retaining room, is provided with a lock, the ke}' of which is 
kept bj' a Government employee, and which is opened only by Government 
employees. As soon as practicable Government men remove the carcass to the 
tank, keeping a record of the tag numbers, which they forward with their reports 
to the office. At houses which do not provide a "condemned room," the carcass is 
sent directly to the tank. About 25 per cent, of the carcasses retained are 
condemned. 

All carcasses, both fit and unfit, ha\'ing been removed from the retaining room, 
the floor and walls are washed with hot water and disinfected in order that the 
room may be clean and free from disease infection for the reception of the next 
batch of retained carcasses.] 

In the performance of meat inspection it is advisahle to maintain the 
following method of procedure in the inspection of the various species of 
animals : 

I. Cattle. — (a) Tlic {suitably prepared) head. — Viewing, cutting 
the lymph glands (retropharangeal, submaxillary, parotid lymph glands), 
and tonsils in sections. Viewing and feeling of the tongue, applying 
extensive cuts to the muscles of mastication on both sides (beginning at 
the maxillary border and running parallel with the branches of the infe- 
rior maxilla. 

(b) Viscera of the Thoracic Cavity 

I. Lungs. — Viewing and palpating. — Cutting the lymph glands in 
sections (right and left bronchial glands, also the mediastinal glands) [the 
anterior mediastinal glands are hanging, as a rule, near the thoracic 
entrance on the forequarter] , and a cross-section through each lobe of the 
lungs at about the last third, extending to the larger bronchial tubes. In 



Action in General 139 

cntting- the bronchial gland it is also advisable to cut into the principal 
bronchi (look for evidence of aspiration of the contents of the stomach). 
2. Heart. — Opening of the pericardium; viewing and opening of 
both ventricles by a longitudinal cut which should extend through the 
septum. 

(c) Viscera of the Abdominal and Pelvic Cavity 

1. Stomach, mesentery, omentum with small and large intestines. 
Viewing and cutting their lymph glands. 

2. Liver. — Viewing of both surfaces, feeling and cutting the lymph 
glands lying around the portal ring ; cross-section through the larger bile 
ducts on the gastric surface and in the Spigelian lobe. 

m 3. Spleen. — Palpation and cutting for the examination of the pulp. 

4. Urinary Bladder. — Viewing and cutting only if it shows a dis- 
eased condition. 

5. Uterus ivith Vagina and Vulva. — Viewing and cutting trans- 
versely through both horns of the uterus, and also longitudinally, if 
necessary. 

6. Udder. — Feeling, viewing, and cutting the organ according to 
necessity ; cutting of the lymph glands, which occasionally remain attached 
to the hindquarter. 

In male cattle, the testicles with the penis and the accessory sexual 
lymph glands are to be viewed instead of the organs mentioned in 5 
and 6. 

(d) The Carcass Proper 

1. In every case viewing of the serous coverings of the large body 
cavities, the cut surfaces of the accessible meat and bones, the kidneys 
loosened from their fat envelope, and the surfaces of the meat quarters ; 
in addition the kidney lymph glands should be cut. 

2. In suspicious cases, especially in emergency slaughter and in 
tuberculosis with extension through the systemic circulation, namely, the 
portal and pulmonary circulation, or the occurrence of extensively soft- 
ened areas or in pronounced affections of the serous membranes, and of 
the uterus, the carcass should be cut into : 

(a) The body wall lymph glands: inferior cervical lymph glands 
(including also the anterior mediastinal glands), lymph glands of the 
superior and inferior thoracic walls, lumbar, internal iliac and external 
ischiac lymph glands. 

(b) The body lymph glands proper ; prescapular, axillary, external 
iliac, popliteal, and superficial inguinal lymph glands. 

(2) Calf. — (a) Inspection of the viscera, thoracic and abdominal 
cavities as in cattle, omitting the cutting of bile ducts, but it is necessary 
to consider especially the umbilical vein ; the kidneys should only be loos- 
ened from the fat capsule in suspicious cases. 



140 Chap. V. Organization and Methods of Procedure, etc. 

(b) Special attention should be paid to the navel and to the joints 
of the carcass, which, as a rule, is only partially skinned. Extensive lymph 
gland examinations under such conditions as were given for cattle should 
be carried out in the same manner. An inspection for measles (cutting 
into the heart and muscles of mastication, examination of the tongue), 
should only take place in calves over 6 weeks of age, except in suspicious 
cases ; likewise the lymph glands of the head should be only cut in cases of 
suspicion. 

3, Sheep and Goat. — The examination is conducted the same as in 
calves. The cutting of the heart and the head and pulmonary lymph 
glands is only undertaken in cases of suspicion. Likewise an inspection 
of the body lymph glands should be made only under those conditions 
which apply for cattle. 

4. Hog. — Before the inspection, the vertebral column must be split 
and the abdominal fat (leaf lard) must be separated from the abdominal 
muscles. 

(a) Pluck (haslets) : Viewing the tongue and the muscles on its 
inferior surface, the muscles of the larynx and of the heart and cutting 
into the latter. Lungs (cross-section through the posterior portion) : 
incising the bronchial lymph glands. Liver : Viewing, palpating, cutting 
the lymph glands (for the absent mediastinal glands, examine the middle 
bronchial gland at the bifurcation of the trachea ; the portal glands, as a 
rule, are attached to the mesentery near the pancreas). 

(b) Mesentery with stomach, intestines, spleen, omentum, urinary 
bladder and uterus. Viewing, palpating, cutting the gastric (and if pres- 
ent, the attached portal) lymph glands, also the mesenteric lymph glands 
of the small and large intestines. 

(c) The carcass. 

1. In every case view the serous linings of the body cavities, the 
accessible parts, and cut surfaces of the meat, bones, and surface of the 
skin ; incise the submaxillary and the superior cervical lymph glands. 

2. In a suspicious case (under conditions as applied to cattle), incise 
the superior, middle, and inferior cervical lymph glands, internal iliac and 
external ischiac lymph glands, the prescapular, external iliac, popliteal 
and superficial inguinal glands. The external ischiac lymph glands lay 
as a rule superficially, but they are also frequently detached from the 
pelvic wall, on the rectum ; the lymph glands of the inferior thoracic wall 
are mostly absent, those of the superior thoracic wall are frequently cut 
off with portions of the aorta, in the evisceration of the pluck ; as a rule, 
the axillary lymph glands are also absent. 

At the request of the owner and if there is no reason for suspicion, 
the splitting of the vertebral column may be waived and this is also 
omitted in sucklijig pigs. 



Action in General 



141 



5. Horse. — The inspection is carried out practically as in cattle, but 
to make a thorough examination of the nasal mucous membrane, the head 
must be split longitudinally, and the septum nasi should be taken out 
in every case. 




Fig. 50. Transverse section through the neck of a bull 



6. On DOGS the inspection is fol- 
lowed in the same manner as has 
been described for small stock. 

In emergency slaughter the in- 
spection must be carried out with 
especial care, and particularly 
where special instructions have been 
given to the inspectors by the gov- 
ernments of the various allied 
states. For instance, the Kingdom 
of Saxony, in 1906, enacted the 
following : 

"In an emergency slaughter the in- 
spector should be especially careful 
about the presence of all the organs, and 
should there remain the slightest suspi- 
cion after the first inspection as to the 
wholesomeness of the meat for human 
consumption he should undertake a sec- 
ond inspection on the slaughtered ani- 
mal. Especially if there is a suspicion 
of blood poisoning it is necessary to as- 
certain whether early changes will ap- 
pear in connection with the keeping 
quality, color and odor of the meat; 
besides a boiling test should also be un- 
dertaken with the meat. A repetition of 
the inspection is always necessary if for 
an exceptional cause the inspection was 
made by artificial light. It must be 
apparent, however, that the second in- 
spection shovild not be delayed too long, 




Fig. 51. Median side of the right 
hind-quarter of a bull; a, cut surface of 
the muse, gracilis ; b, external inguinal 
ring c, scrotal fat tissue; d, part of 
the muse, bulbo-cavernosus (represented 
somewhat enlarged) ; e, tuberculum pu- 
bicum ; /, fat capsule of the kidney. 



142 Chap. v. Organization and IMethods of Procedure, etc. 



thus permitting the questionable meat to become affected 1)y putrefactive changes. 
Therefore in the summer time the second inspection should never be undertaken later 
tlian 24 hours after the slaughter." 



Fig. 52. Trans- 
verse section 
through the neck of 
a steer. 





Fig. 54. "Median side of a right 
hind-quarter of a cow; a, cut surface 
of the muse, gracilis; b, udder; c, 
tuberculum pubicum ; d. iat capsule 
of the kidney. 



Fig. 53. Trans- 
\' e r s e section 
through the neck 
of a cow. 



(c) Indications of age of the 
.slaughtered animals were mentioned 
on page 16. 

(d) The determination of the sex 
in the dressed animals may ensue 
from the following- indications : 



The l)ulls are conspicuous hy their 
strong development of the muscles, 
especially on the withers (Fig. 50) 
and shoulders, as well as by their 
compact development in general. The 
color of the meat is in general darker 
(page 57), the quantity of fat is 
smaller than in steers and cows. On 
the hind quarters the following" is 
conspicuous (Fig. 51): The opened 
inguinal canal, the small quantity of 
scrotal fat, the triangular or irregular 
rhomboidal-shaped cut section of the 
gracilis muscles, the place of attach- 
ment of which on the ischial portion 
of the pelvic floor is, as a rule, covered 
with fasci?e and fat tissue ; on the 
ischial notch there generally remains 
a large portion of the bulbo-caverno- 



Action in General 



M3 



sus muscle sometimes with adhering parts of the corpora cavernosa of the 
penis ; the striking angularity of the pelvic floor with the strongly devel- 
oped tuberculum pubicum, and the slightly developed fat capsule of the 
kidneys. Sometimes the channel of the penis can he followed in the fat 
on the inner surface of the thigh and the abdominal wall. 

In steers the development of the body is not as compact, and espe- 
cially the muscles of the neck and withers are not as well developed 
(Fig. 52} ; the color of the muscles is also lighter (]3age 57) than in the 
bull ; the development of the fat is always greater, the inguinal canal is 
closed and the scrotal region contains a large (juantity of fat (cod fat) 




FiR. 56 

Fig. 55. Right hind-quarter of a castrated male hog. i, Lschio-pubic symphysis 
2, first sacral vertebra; m, muse, bulbo-cavernosus enclosing a portion of the corpus 
cavernosum of the penis; '/. castration scfir; r. groove of the penis in the fat tissue. 

Fig. 56. Right hind-quarter of a female hog. Here comes into consideration the 
bean-shaped cross-section of the muse, gracilis laying distally (in the picture above) 
from the ischio-pubic symphysis. 



The cows are characterized by a more slender, finer development of the 
body ; the muscles are not as well developed and their color is lighter 
(page 57, Fig. 53) ; the color of the fat is sometimes conspicuously yel- 
low ; on the hind quarter the large loose udder is noticeable ; after being 
cut away it leaves a defect in the po.sterior abdominal region ; the cut sur- 
face of the gracilis muscle is bean or crescent shaped and reaches to the 
ischial notch ; the floor of the pelvis appears only slighth" angular or 
arched ; the tuberculum pubicum is not well developed ( Fig. 54 ) . The 



144 Chap. V. Organization and Methods of Procednre, etc. 

heifers may be distinguished from the cows by their slightly developed 
milkless udder, which in well fattened animals is considerably intermixed 
with fat. 

2. CALVES 

Bull calves are easily recognized by the small testicles, the openings 
in the inguinal canal, the stump of the penis, etc., and by the ischial notch, 
while heifer calves are recognized by the presence of the udder as men- 
tioned above. 

Calves in the skin. In bull calves the scrotum and the brush (a tuft 
of long hairs at the orifice of the sheath) are present. In heifer calves the 
teats, which are present in both sexes, are better developd. 

3. SHEEP AND GOATS 

The distinguishing of rams from wethers and ewes has to be followed 
by the same indication as in cattle. In bucks the peculiar sexual odor is 
conspicuous (Chap. VII, Sect. i). 

4. HOGS 

In boars, besides the small quantity of fat deposits there is strikingly 
noticeable the dark color of the muscles, the thickness of the skin on the 
neck and shoulders, as well as the strong sexual odor (Chap. VII, i). If 
the testicles with the scrotum have been cut out, the large skin defect 
becomes conspicuous. Besides, the other remaining parts of the penis and 
the bulbo-cavernosus muscle, the channel of the penis, and the cut surface 
of the gracilis muscles (Fig. 55) appear in a condition similar to bulls The 
opening cut of the abdomen shows in the navel region on both sides, or 
more to one side a defect as a result of a cutting out of the navel sac. 
Cryptorchid boars may appear according to the functional ability of the 
testicles more or less as boars or castrated animals ; this also applies to the 
so-called stags (page 2). 

The sexual characteristics of the slaughtered castrated male hogs are 
in general very much the same as in boars ; however, the castration scars 
(Fig. 55n) are noticeable on the posterior contour of the leg, and also 
the development of the body resembles very much that of the female 
hogs. 

In female hogs the pelvis appears wider, and the posterior pelvic 
notch larger than in male animals ; the cut surface of the gracilis muscle 
is bean shaped ; on the opening cut of the abdomen the place of the 
excision of the navel is not present ; the development of the udder and 
teats depends on the number of times the animals have suckled young. 
In female hogs which have been spayed scars of the operation are 
visible on the left flank. 



Action in General 145 

5. HORSES 

The sex of the dressed horses may be determined by the same char- 
acteristics as were described for cattle. In stallions the fat is generally 
of a lighter color and almost white, in contradistinction to the intensely 
yellow fat of geldings and mares. 

6. Concerning the characteristics of the sexes of slaughtered dogs, 
nothing particular can be said. 

For the judgment of slaughtered animals after inspection is accom- 
plished, the points outlined on page 158 should be considered. 

Regarding the stamping of meat after inspection is made, see 
page 159. 

3, Inspection of Imported Meat 

(a) Meat from Foreign Countries 

The inauguration of a general ante-mortem and post-mortem inspec- 
tion on animals slaughtered within the German Empire makes it naturally 
essential to subject imported fresh and prepared meats to a careful inspec- 
tion and strict judgment. For this purpose exact directions were issued 
in the regulations in connection with the imperial meat-inspection law, 
which also include the chemical examination of such meat. As the judg- 
ment of diseased imported meat sometimes varies from the disposition to 
be taken of native meat, it is advisable to consider carefully the above- 
mentioned regulations in every case of condemnation. 

The fact that importations into Germany of foreign meat, of con- 
taminated meat, sausages, and other mixtures in air-tight cans or similar 
containers, have been prohibited since October i, 1900, was mentioned on 
page 80. 

The relative sizes of imported fresh and prepared pieces of foreign 
meat were temporarily established up to December i, 1903, and as there 
have been no new regulations made to govern these relations, the last 
established conditions of importations remain in effect until further 
amendments are issued. The shipment of foreign meats to Germany is 
limited to certain places of entry, which are named in connection with the 
inspection stations in the regulations of the Federal Council. 

Regarding the designation of imported salted intestines (casings), there are 
5 parts distinguished in the intestines of cattle according to Groning: "Wreath 
intestines" (small intestines), "cap" (caecum), "butt" (caecum, with the orifice of 
the ileum and a small portion of the colon), "middle intestines" (colon), and "fat 
end" (rectum). Every bundle of intestines has, in accordance to its origin from 
the various countries, a certain length, or it contains a certain number of intestines. 
-A. bundle of "wreath" intestines is 24 to 32; a bundle of "middle" intestines is 
generally 18 m. long. So-called nodular intestines (Chap. VII) [see B. A. I. Order 
II 



146 Chap. V. Organization and Methods of Procedure, etc. 

150, Regulation 13, section 32] are frequently packed separatelj' as inferior in 
quality. These bundles are longer; and therefore a barrel packed with them con- 
tains, as a rule, about 180 bundles, while of the good quality, over 200 bundles are 
contained in each barrel. 

For distinguishing salted horse intestines from cattle intestines, Wentzel points 
out the following characteristics : The '"middle" intestines of cattle run in a 
straight line, while those of the horse are curved on account of the wall to which the 
mesentery is attached being shorter than that of the opposite side. Furthermore, 
the outside surface of the small intestines of the horse (that is, the mucous mem- 
brane turned out), cannot be thoroughly and readily separated, as a result of the 
firmer consistence of the submucosa and the small quantity of fat it contains. 
Usually on the intestines of the horse larger shreds of the mucous membrane 
remain attached, which give them a brown appearance. On the small intestines 
of the horse the place of attachment of the mesentery is conspicuous, but this can- 
not be noticed on the middle portion of the intestines in cattle. In inflating the 
small intestines of the horse with air they will arrange themselves in windings, while 
those of cattle will run straight. If inflated, the walls of the intestines of cattle 
show an interweaving with fat tissue in all directions, which is absent in the intes- 
tines of the horse. 
J, (b) Domestic Meat 

As a resuU of uniform regulation of meat-inspection in the entire 
German Empire, the reinspection of meat shipped from one place to 
another does not appear any longer necessary as in former times ; never- 
theless, a control of such introduced meat appears very desirable, espe- 
cially when the shipments are quite extensive to a certain locality. In 
order to make this control effective it appears necessary that the meat 
should originate from regularly inspected food animals, and should comply 
with all the general requirements which are demanded of marketed meat 
in the respective localities. Besides, a supervision of shipped meat is also 
necessary on account of the manifold changes to which it is exposed 
(putrefaction, spoiling, etc.). The need of inspection for meat shipped to 
places having public abattoirs and a strict veterinary inspection appears 
also essential, as otherwise some of the butchers would prefer to slaughter 
their animals in neighboring towns with less rigid inspection and probably 
smaller expense. Such procedure would threaten not alone the manage- 
ment of the public abattoirs, but would also considerably diminish their 
revenues. It was, therefore, determined that the right of the various 
states in Germany may be further exercised regarding the reinspection of 
meats shipped to localities in which public abattoirs are maintained . and 
through authorized regulations, such meat would be subject to a compul- 
sory reinspection. An exception was made for the Kingdom of Prussia, 
by the law of June 28, 1902, in connection with the law of September 23, 
1904, whereby the authority of the towns, even if they had public abattoirs, 
was revoked, so that meat shipped to such localities and which was offi- 
cially inspected by a veterinarian, need not be subjected to a compulsory 
reinspection. [See B. A. I. Order 150, Regulation 19, section 1-5.] 



Action in General 147 

In localities to which extensive shipping of meat takes place the 
establishment of an inspection office appears very essential, the equipment 
of which should contain -everything necessary for a thorough expert 
inspection of the meat (arrangement for hanging up the meat, inspection 
tables, good light, microscope, and reagents, stamping apparatus, etc.). 
Only veterinarians should be employed as experts in such offices, and the 
time for inspection should be as much as possible restricted to those hours 
having sufficient daylight, in case there is not a very good artificial light 
present (electric light, glowing gas light, acetylene light). Where only an 
inconsiderable quantity of fresh meat is shipped in, it may be inspected on 
the premises of the consignee, or may be directly brought to the inspector, 
who, however, should be in all cases a veterinarian. The inspection of 
prepared meat (meat products) for which there can be no cessation 
recognized within the Empire, may be undertaken under the same condi- 
tion by lay meat inspectors. 

Regarding the procedure of the inspection of the fresh and prepared 
meats shipped in from other localities, the directions concerning the tech- 
nical relations of the veterinary inspection of meat imported from foreigti 
countries may serve as guidance. 

Should a chemical examination of such meat be necessary, the direc- 
tions for the chemical examination of meats and fats give the necessary 
fundamental information. 

An examination for trichina, where such is maintained, should al- 
ways be undertaken on pork shipped from other localities, if the meat 
originates from localities which do not conduct regulated trichina exami- 
nations ; or if the pieces of pork or carcasses are not marked or otherwise 
designated that the respective animals were examined by an authorized 
trichina examiner and found free of that affection. The procedure of 
trichina examination may be carried out in accordance with the directions 
for the examination of meat for trichina and measles, as given in the 
regulations to the meat-inspection law. 

The judging of imported foreign meat has to be carried out in 
accordance with the regulations to the meat-inspection law. For native 
meat such regulations are authorized which exist at the place to which 
the meat is destined in connection with the state police instructions for 
those places. 

4, Inspection for Trichina 

Trichinosis in hogs and dogs, described in Chap. VII, Sect. 5, 
requires a microscopical examination of the muscles of these animals for 
the determination of the presence of trichina. 



148 Chap. V. Organization and Methods of Procedure, etc 

The authorized regulation of this examination — the trichina inspection — is, 
according to the imperial meat-inspection law, left to the state governments. It 
has already been made obligatory and inaugurated in North Germany, through state 
government police regulations ; while in states of South Germany it is carried out 
only exceptionally, and almost exclusively in some of the larger cities. 

[Formerly in the United States trichina inspection was maintained 
only for export pork. This, however, has also been abandoned, as it was 
found that some of the foreign governments were not giving any atten- 
tion to our certificates. Quite adequate reasons for not maintaining a 
trichina examination in the United States are described by Dr. A. D. 
Melvin in his work on the "Federal Meat Inspection Service" (B. A. I. 
Circular 125, page 35), which is quoted in the following: 

"While the Federal meat inspection in this country is as thorough as a com- 
prehensive law, stringent regulations, and a liberal appropriation of money can 
make it, and the consumer of meats bearing the stamp "U. S. Inspected and Passed" 
may in general have the comfortable assurance that he is buying and eating products 
from healthy animals prepared under clean and sanitary conditions, and the 
danger of contracting disease from eating these meats is practically eliminated, yet 
the fact should not be overlooked that there is one disease against which the meat 
inspection legend does not pretend to be a safeguard. For the detection of most 
of the diseases affecting meat the human eye needs no assistance. The disease called 
trichinosis, however, to which hogs are subject, is caused by a parasite so small that 
the microscope must be employed to detect it. Thorough curing or thorough cook- 
ing of the meat kills this parasite. It seems, however, that some European peoples 
have a habit of eating raw or half-raw pork, and consequently they have suffered 
from this disease. Very elaborate measures have been taken in some countries to 
do away with or to lessen the danger. In Germany, for instance, there is an army 
of inspectors who use the microscope to detect these parasites in pork. These coun- 
tries some years ago forbade the importation of American pork products unless they 
had been microscopically inspected. To meet this requirement the Bureau instituted 
several years ago a system of inicroscopic inspection of pork intended for shipment to 
such countries. No microscopic inspection of pork intended for home consumption, 
however, has ever been made or even contemplated. The Department takes the 
ground that from the nature of the disease an examination of certain parts of a hog- 
carcass can only minimize and not eliminate the danger. 

The parasites, it is true, are usually found, if found at all, in certain parts, as the 
pillar of the diaphragm, the psoas muscle, the inner aspect of the shoulder, or the 
base of the tongue. Not finding them in these parts by the usual methods, it may be 
assumed to be probable that they do not exist in the remainder of the carcass. This 
is, however, only a probability, as they may exist, and even to such an extent as 
to produce disease if the flesh is eaten raw. Many cases are on record where 
twenty, even thirty, examinations were made before trichinae were found ; and out of 
6,329 cases of trichinosis in Germany, between 1881 and 1898, a careful inquiry 
traced 2,042 cases (over 32 per cent) to meat which had been microscopically exam- 
ined and passed as free from trichinse. In view of these facts the Department has 
regarded it as utterly hnpracticable to inspect hog carcasses for this disease. It has 
further taken the view that such inspection — which as formerly carried on for 
exported products would cost about $3,700,000 a year if all hogs killed at inspected 



Action in General 



149 



houses were so examined — would do more harm than good. It would create in the 
minds of the consumers a feeling of false security, which might lead them to omit 
the only sure means of escaping danger, namely, to refrain from eating uncooked or 
uncured pork; and it would thus defeat its very purpose and render the great 
trouble and expense worse than useless."] 

Trichina Inspection Association. — To facilitate the meat traffic between the 
governments of Prussia (with the exception of the Hohenzollern country), an agree- 
ment was accepted that all meat from hogs which originate inside of the territories 





Fig. 57. Compressor, the upper plate of which may be drawn out. Hauptner-Berlin 



of the participating states, and which is shipped from one of these states, is con- 
sidered as inspected for trichinae, as the requirements for inspection is in all of 
these states based on practically the same foundation. 

The execution of trichina inspection on fresh or prepared meats, may be 
assigned to special trichina examiners, and should be carried out in accordance with 
the above-mentioned directions of the law. Out- 
side the public abattoirs it is desirable to have the 
meat and trichina inspection in hogs performed 
by one and the same person in order that one 
or the other inspection should not be omitted. 




Fig. 58. American compressor 
(closed) 




59. American compressor 
(opened) 



Regarding the details to be considered in the inspection, it may be referred to the 
authorized directions as well as to the numerous special publications on trichina 
inspection.! 



1 For instance: Johne — The Trichina Examiner, 9th edition, Berlin, 1904; Long- 
Preusse — Practical Guide for the Trichina Inspection, 6th edition, Berlin, 1905, and 
others. 



150 Chap. V. Organization and Methods of Procedure, etc. 

Of the now generally adopted compressors which are used at present in pre- 
paring squeeze preparations, Fig. 57 represents an illustration of a compressor divi- 
ded into 24 parts and which is now generally used ; while Figs. 58 and 59 represent 
a very practical American compressor which does not possess a division into fields, 
and which is represented in an open and closed condition. 

For an easy performance of the microscopical examination of prepared squeeze 
preparations for trichinae, there are numerous so-called trichina-microscopes con- 
structed. Projection apparatuses are also employed in larger abattoirs as well as 
inspection bureaus under the designation of trichina scopes, which serve for a quick 
purel}^ mechanical search of the preparations. Regarding the importance and execu- 
tion of these projection trichina inspections, the reader is referred to the publi- 
cations of Kohler, Bockelmann, Schiiller, in the "Zeitschrift fur Fleisch-und Milch- 
hygiene." 

That the taking of samples of meat required for the examination of trichinae 
should be undertaken by special sample takers is apparent from the official directions. 
These sample takers, who cannot be dispensed with in the lai-ger abattoirs, must 
possess the same qualifications as the trichina examiners. The latter, but especially 
the sample takers, should be required to perform the examination of these samples 
for measles. 

The judging of the results of the examination for trichinae and measles should 
not be trusted to the trichina examiners, but it is necessary that they be reexamined 
by veterinary inspectors. Regarding the disposition of meat found to be infested 
with trichinae or measles, see the regulations to the imperial meat-inspection law, 
as well as Chap. VII, section 5. [See B. A. I. Order 150, Regulation 13, section 17, 
page I.] 

The samples of muscles which are cut out for the preparations of the slides 
cannot be considered as unobjectionable food after they have been so used, and they 
should therefore be treated as meat of inferior quality, which, at larger places, is best 
utilized in the Freibanks. 

5, Legal Means of Redress and Complaints in the Execution of Meat Inspection 

Against the decisions of the inspector and the police authorities in 
matters pertaining to food animal and meat inspection, the owners must 
be granted an appeal to higher authority. Accordingly in the regulations 
to the meat-inspection law it is precisely determined regarding the com- 
plgjnts to be made and the legal means of redress by the state govern- 
ments, which should issue measures that in cases of appeals from the 
condemnation of an inspector wlio was not educated as a veterinarian, the 
opinion of a graduated veterinarian must be required, and in case of con- 
demnations by a veterinarian at least the opinion of one suitable expert 
must be taken into consideration. As such experts may be considered in 
a country or in abattoirs which have only one veterinarian, the official 
veterinarians (district, country, chief bureau veterinarians), while in the 
larger abattoirs a chief veterinarian or the director of the abattoir consti- 
tutes the expert. This should constitute the last instance for appeal, as 
the appealing to a still higher authority would not correspond to the value 
of the object, which is also subject to spoiling, and besides the lesions 
are readily obliterated. [See B. A. I. Order 150, Regulation 28, 
section i.] 



Action in General ' 151 

The time limit for the institution of a complaint should not extend 
over two hours after the decision of the respective opinion was tendered, 
owing to the above-mentioned reasons. 

The cost incurred by the procedure made necessary by the complaint 
should be borne by the owner if the opinion of the first inspector is con- 
firmed, while if it is reversed the cost must be paid by the treasury of the 
respective community. Only by such a procedure and by appropriately 
high expenses can constant appealing be prevented. 

6, Bookkeeping and Certifications of Findings 

The necessary bookkeeping rec|uired in connection with meat inspec- 
tjpn is carried out in accordance with the extent of the inspection and the 
nature of other local conditions. 

Nevertheless, it is required to keep a diary-inspection book for the 
ante-mortem and post-mortem inspection. 

By the resolutions of the Federal Council of May 28, 1903, and May 5, 1904, 
authority was granted to the state governments to adopt a simplification of the 
daily bookkeeping in the public abattoirs to such an extent that animals passed on 
inspection may be entered in a summary; also that the entering of the time of regis- 
tration, the time of the ante-mortem and post-morten inspection may be omitted, 
as well as the condemnation of single parts, when they result from the same cause. 
The respective animals may be daily entered combined, but must be kept separated 
according to species. In other cases the designation of further distinguishing signs 
with the kind and sex of the animals in column 2 of the diary may be omitted. 
[See B A. I. Order 150, Regulation 27, sections 1-2.] 

At the inspection stations for foreign meats the bookkeeping of meat 
inspection must be carried out in accordance with the regulations. 

If requested the inspector must make out a special certificate (certi- 
fication of the findings) on the results of the inspection of an animal, for 
which certain forms are adopted. Regarding the issuance of such certi- 
ficates of inspected foreign meats, the imperial regulations have no 
specifications. 

7. Statistics of Ante-mortem and Post-mortem Inspection 

In order to utilize the results of the inspection, the Federal Council 
passed resolutions on June i, 1904, which requires a report from the 
inspectors on the statistical compilation. According to this the inspec- 
tors are directed to prepare for every quarter of the calendar year authen- 
tic information (slaughter statistics) of the inspected animals, which 
should be prepared on a specially printed form, and which is to be trans- 
mitted until an established date to the places determined by the state gov- 
ernments. Besides there are also to be submitted annual statistical com- 



152 Chap. V. Organization and Methods of Procedure, etc. 

pilations on the results of the ante-mortem and post-mortem inspection 
on specially prepared forms, whereby the veterinary and nonveterinary 
inspectors have to use different forms, which are adapted to the differing 
duties of these experts. The inspection stations for foreign meat have 
also to report annually the results of the inspection, and there also have to 
be prepared until further orders in the abattoirs the findings of tuberculo- 
sis in the slaughtered animals, compiled in an annual statistical report. 

Regarding the details to be considered by the inspectors in the prep- 
aration of the statistics, it must be referred to the special regulations of 
the various state governments. 

The slaughter statistics were prepared for the first time for the 
3d quarter of 1904, and the results of the annual inspection were reported 
for the first time for the year 1904. The compiling of the entire statistical 
material is carried out by the Imperial Health Department, which also 
publishes it. 

8. Dues for the Ante^'moftein and Post'Tnortem Inspection 

For the practice of ante-mortem and post-mortem inspection the 
experts are allowed a compensation, which is designated as "slaughter 
dues." The amount is regulated for the inspection of foreign meats by 
the Federal Council ; tor all other inspections it is left to the state govern- 
ments. The amount of the dues should be such, that while it should not 
be an unreasonable burden for the slaughterer, yet it ought to assure the 
expert an adecjuate pay. 

An underbidding of the authoritatively adjusted fees by the experts 
should be condemned and should be severely punished. 

The collection of the inspection dues in abattoirs and in places which 
have special inspection offices (page 156) established for ambulatory 
inspection, is made through the respective treasuries, or also through the 
local police authorities ; otherwise the fees are, as a rule, directly paid to 
the inspector. The latter should be restricted as much as possible by the 
police in consideration of the authority of the inspector as an expert, and 
by not having to accept his dues directly from the owner it would make 
the inspector more or less independent of the public. Therefore, it is best 
for the police authorities, as well as for the inspectors, if the latter are 
appointed with a fixed salary and the dues for the inspection are collected 
by the authorities. This must also be followed when the payment of the 
inspection dues to the inspector is not made. 

The dues are also to be payable in cases where the inspector was 
called, but was unable to perform the duties through no neglect of his. 

9, Supervision of the AntC'-mortem and Post-'mortem Inspection 

That the entire system of meat inspection must be placed under 
supervision, and under a supreme direction of a central office, does not 
require any further reasoning. According to the regulations the state gov- 



Action in General I53 

ernments are directed to issue suitable regulations to such an extent that 
a revision should be made of every inspection district at least every two 
years. In most instances it is best to assign this work to official veterma- 
i-ians, while the central direction of the office should rest in the hands of 
higher state veterinarians (state department, district veterinarians). 

10, Freibank 

By the term Freibank is understood a place (shop) for the selling of 
meat of inferior quality, not first-class, marketable meat (page 162). The 
term "bank," in its present application, originates from the old designation 
of the meat-selling places as "meat banks." At the places so designated, 
o»ly such meat was sold which possessed all the requirements, and, there- 
fore, it was accepted as "marketable" (suitable for market shop clean, 
meat of full value) . All other meat, which was yet salable, was designated 
as not marketable (not suitable for market, not shop clean, inferior qual- 
ity, deficient), and its sale was restricted to a special bank (Freibank), 
located apart from the other meat shops. At present the Freibank is an 
indispensable establishment for the meat inspection, the necessity for 
which need not be further discussed here. The legal permission of the 
Freibanks was established by the food law of May 14, 1879, and in the 
regulations based on the same, in the imperial meat-inspection law of June 
3, 1900, and also the adopted state legislative as well as the local statutory 
directions. 

The principle of the modern Freibank and of other similar establish- 
ments is the selling under declaration — namely, by stating the cause which 
makes the meat otherwise unmarketable. As a consequence of the "non- 
marketable" condition of the meat the price of the meat is, as a rule, lower 
than that of marketable meat. This is, however, not absolutely necessary, 
and depends on the local conditions of the meat trade. The adjusting of 
the price of the meat ought to be left to the owners, as an official fixing of 
the price is not permissible legally. In case the compulsory declaration 
cannot be sufficiently carried out, meat which is "non-marketable" must 
be excluded for further trade purposes. Therefore the purchase of such 
non-marketable meat and its utilization by butchers, manufacturers of meat 
products, hotel and restaurant and boarding-house keepers, are inadmissi- 
ble and punishable. In connection with this are carried out the customary 
limitation of the sale of meat to small quantities in the Freibanks, and the 
official supervision of the entire Freibank management, which is accom- 
plished in the simplest way and most successfully in places, where only 
authoritatively appointed, sufficiently compensated, and otherwise inde- 
pendent persons are employed. A supervision of the Freibanks. if pos- 
sible, by veterinarians, or at least by non-veterinary inspectors, is neces- 
sary under all conditions. 



154 Chap. V. Organization and Methods of Procedure, etc. 

The operation of the Freibanks may be advantageously united with the equip- 
ments for safe keeping, for boiling and pickling, as well as for the rendering of fat. 
The location of Freibanks in places which have abattoirs is best established on the 
premises, as by such arrangements their operation is the simplest and cheapest. 
For large cities with abattoirs one Freibank only would not prove sufficient, but it 
would be necessary to establish inside the city limit one or more additional Frei- 
banks. Furthermore, and this applies also to localities without abattoirs, such 
places should be selected which are inhabited principally by the laboring class, and 
also not in the immediate vicinity of a regular butcher shop. 

Recently it was recommended to establish ambulatory Freibanks also, and 
special wagons were constructed for this purpose. 

For the maintenance of the Freibank the authorities may levy appropriate 
dues, and the expenses may also be covered by the receipts from the sales. 

Similar to a Freibank is to be considered the sale of meat under police super- 
vision which may occur at any place where the meat was declared inferior in 
quality. This disposition of the non-marketable meat proves very suitable, especially 
for smaller towns which cannot afford to maintain a permaneuLly equipped 
Freibank. 

Under certain conditions such meat may be immediately disposed of on the 
premises of the butcher. For readily conceivable reasons it is natural that super- 
vision by the authorities must be especially strict, otherwise all other requirements 
which constitute the principles of the sales on the Freibank must be carried out. 

[The establishment of the Freibanks in various countries of Etirope 
has proven a great success. The strict official supervision of them assures 
the poor classes a wholesome, palatable, and yet inexpensive meat. Such 
meat thus advantageously utilized in the Freibanks would otherwise have 
to be condemned and only its value in by-products would come into con- 
sideration, hence the economic importance of this system can be readily 
recognized. 

The establishment of the Freibank in the United States, making a 
three-class meat system, would afford the same advantages that obtain in 
the countries where it is now in operation. The system would not create 
any prejudice amongst that class of people who would patronize it, as 
there are at the present tinie a large number of families in this country 
who have emigrated from the countries where the Freibank system has 
been in existence for many years, and therefore they are thoroughly famil- 
iar with this institution, and would gladly take advantage of the oppor- 
tunities afforded thereby. 

Besides the above-mentioned advantages to be gained from the Frei- 
bank, there is one which would have a far-reaching effect toward the 
eradication of tuberculosis. By the establishment of the Freibank a large 
percentage of carcasses which are under the present system of meat 
inspection condemned for tuberculosis would be passed for the Freibank/" 



1 For detailed information on this subject the reader is referred to Dr. Ch. 
W. Stiles' work on "The Three-Class (Freibank) Meat System as an Aid in 
Eradicating Tuberculosis." Jour, of the American Medical Association, Nov. 2. 
1907, p. 1483. 



Performance of Ante-mortem and Post-mortem Inspection, etc. 155 

which would greatly diminish the losses to the stock-raiser, shipper, and 
packer, and hence the existing feeling of the stock-owners toward the 
application of the tuberculin test to their herds would be beneficially influ- 
enced in that a greater compensation would be obtained for their tubercu- 
lous cattle.] 

B, Performance of the Ante-mortem and Post-mortem Inspection in 
the Stock Yards and Abattoirs 

Although the purpose of the public abattoirs and stock yards (Chap. 
XII) is primarily to centralize at one point all the slaughtering of a com- 
munity, they are of greater importance in the performance of meat inspec- 
tion because of the inauguration of compulsory slaughter therein. In the 
public stock yards and abattoirs the inspection of animals both alive and 
after slaughter, is not restricted to the animals brought there, but the 
meat which is shipped from outside into such a community is also 
inspected. In very large cities, however, it is sometimes necessary to 
estabhsh special inspection stations inside of the city for the inspection of 
meat or carcasses which are brought or shipped into the city. In the abat- 
toirs the meat-inspection authorities are in charge of the further disposi- 
tion of the condemned meat (page 170), the sale of inferior or impaired 
meat, etc. 

In the extensive and varied inspection service in stock 3^ards and 
abattoirs it is natural that this work can be only carried out in a complete 
manner by veterinarians. And as they may, at the same time, manage the 
establishment, conduct the affairs of the food-animal insurance, etc., a 
requirement to have only veterinarians assigned to the management of 
public abattoirs would not be unjust. Besides the veterinary director it 
requires also the services of special veterinarians to carry out the inspec- 
tion in larger abattoirs, which fact does not need to be further discussed. 
The performance of certain work in connection with meat inspection may 
be assigned in stock yards and abattoirs to non-veterinary inspectors or to 
other appointed experts (trichina examiners), under veterinary supervi- 
sion and responsibility ; however, this should be followed only when it is 
absolutely necessary. The employment of lay inspectors exclusively for 
meat-inspection work in stock yards and abattoirs cannot be approved. 
When lay inspectors are substituted for veterinary experts the arrange- 
ment should be such that the inspection should be regularly performed 
during the prescribed hours. The ante-mortem and post-mortem inspec- 
tion in stock yards and abattoirs, finally necessitates a personnel for the 
supervision of the order and the operation of the abattoirs, as well as 
skilled and conscientious assistants for the discharge of incidental labor 
and duties in connection with the meat-inspection service. 



156 Chap. V. Organization and Methods of Procedure, etc. 

In large abattoirs the time for inspection extends, as a rule, to all 
hours of the day, and in several places it is even continued during the 
night. In small and medium-sized abattoir's it is reasonable to limit the 
service of inspection to certain hours, adapted to local necessities. 

C, The Ambulatory Ante-'mortem and Post^moftem Inspection 

In all places which do not possess stock yards and abattoirs, meat 
inspection must be performed on the premises of the slaughtering party, 
which naturally is far more troublesome, more difficult, and not as thor- 
ough as the inspection in public abattoirs. Where the size of the place 
and other conditions permit, the inspection should be preferably per- 
formed by veterinarians, and only in case they cannot be obtained should 
non-veterinary inspectors be called upon to perform the inspection. The 
latter will probably never be dispensed with in small towns and in locali- 
ties which are thinly populated. In ambulatory meat inspection it is 
always necessary to form inspection districts, which assure the appointed 
meat inspectors suitable and exclusive spheres of activity. In those local- 
ities in which the inspection cannot be performed by an individual expert, 
inspection stations are frequently established in which the inspections to 
be made are reported, and the dues paid. Here is also inspected the meat 
brought or shipped into that locality, and all matters affecting food ani- 
mals and meat inspection are regulated therein. 

Regarding the time of inspection, the distance to be covered by the 
inspector should always be considered and sufficient notice should be given 
in order that the inspector may regulate his activity accordingly. If, as 
in hogs, the post-mortem inspection and examination for trichinae are not 
carried out by one and the same inspector, care should be taken that 
neither of the inspections should remain unperformed. 

D, Extraordinary Meat Inspection 

By this term is understood special examinations which the experts of 
meat inspection have to carry out either alone or accompanied by the 
police authorities, not only of slaughtering places, but also the premises 
for storing, preparing, and marketing meat. Although veterinary inspec- 
tors should always pay attention to the conditions and circumstances of 
the industrial premises which they may enter in the execution of their 
office, yet unexpected special examinations must not be dispensed with. 
In order that any possible objections to these examinations could be met, 
it is advisable that extraordinary meat inspection should be considered in 
the local statutory regulations in connection with the general meat 
inspection. [See B. A. I. Order 150, Regulation 6, section 21.]) 



Extraordinary Meat Inspection 157 

This form of inspection should be extended to : 

1. Proper condition and equipment of all the rooms used in connec- 
tion with the operation of the butcher shop, sausage making or prepara- 
tions of meat products ; ' ' 

2. Cleanliness of the plants ; 

3. The presence of uninspected meat, or 

4. Tainted meat ; 

5. The use of prohibited preservatives and conserving substances ; 

6. Consideration of contingent, special regulations for the meat 
brought in ; 

7. Proper condition of the books pertaining to slaughter, and the 
me3.t. 

Not too long an interval should elapse between the examinations, and 
they should be undertaken very frequently during the warmer season. 

Such examinations may also extend to the stores which market game, 
fowl, fish, or products prepared from them, even if these food substances 
in themselves are not subject to a compulsory inspection. 

According to an order of the Royal Bavarian Ministry of the Interior of 
November 21, 1906, the district veterinarians are directed to spend annually five 
business days in the controlling of the butcheries, sausage manufactories, meat 
stores and similar establishments. 

This control has to be carried out in accordance with the measures of the 
prevailing regulations. At the same time it is especially essential to advise the 
proprietors of the establishments regarding suitable equipment and caretaking of 
the work and sales rooms, and concerning their proper management. 

In Prussia similar regulations exist only in several of the government districts. 

For the Kingdom of Saxony there exists an order that the inspectors must 
report to the police authorities all offenses or irregularities which they may observe 
in slaughtering or meat-storing establishments, etc. 



VL Decisions of the Veterinary Inspectors and 
Disposition of the Condemned Meat 

All decisions of the veterinary inspectors are based not only upon the 
imperial meat-inspection law and regulations issued in connection there- 
with, but also on the state and local police orders which may be authorita- 
tively passed. As the authority for such decisions as the non-veterinary 
inspectors may make is subject to veterinary supervision, the following 
representations apply only to the veterinary inspection force : 

L Ante-rnortem Inspections 

The decision of the inspector may determine the following : 

(a) Prohibition of slaughter when the animals show the presence 
of anthrax, blackleg, rinderpest, rabies, glanders, hemorrhagic septicemia, 
or if there is a suspicion of any of these enumerated infections. 

(b) Deferring the slaughter of the animals which are exhausted or 
overheated through transportation, and of those calves which are appar- 
ently immature. While there are no legislative measures in the regula- 
tions for these, such an order is justified from the technical standpoints: 
besides it is also in the interest of the owners of the animals. 

(c) Authorization of slaughter in all other cases. 

2. Inspection of the Slaughtered Animals 

After the conclusion of the inspection of the slaughtered animal the 
decision of the inspector may be as follows : 

(a) The meat, including the entire carcass (meat with bones, fat, 
viscera, and all other parts which may be utilized for human food, the 
skin as well as the blood), is passed for consumption (marketable). 

(b) The meat is passed for consumption (marketable) after the 
removal and condemnation of certain affected parts. 

Under this decision is also classified the meat of the so-called "one 
measled cattle," which after storage for 21 days in cooling or refrigera- 
tion room may be passed for consumption without restrictions. 

(c) The meat is passed for consumption, but is considerably dimin- 
ished in its nutritive value (non-marketable, inferior quality), whereby, as 
;i rule, several diseased viscera or more extensive parts of the carcass are 
lemoved and condemned. 

158 



Markino; of Meat 



159 



(d) The fat is passed without restrictions, while the meat is either 
condemned, conditionally passed, or passed without restriction. 

In this group should also be classified the unaffected viscera of measly 
■ animals, the meat of which should be either condemned, conditionally 
passed, of inferior quahty, or passed without any restrictions. 

(e) Individual quarters are conditionally passed (non-marketable, 
with subjection to special treatment), or condemned while the other parts 
are passed (marketable) or sold as of inferior quality after the removal of 
certain altered organs and parts. 

(f) The entire carcass is conditionally passed (non-marketable, 
with subjection to a special treatment), with the exception of the parts 
which might have to be condemned. 

(g) The fat of the animal is conditionally passed (non-marketable, 
with subjection to a special treatment), and the other meat including the 
viscera, is condemned. 

(h) The entire carcass 
is condemned for human 
consumption. 

[While in Germany, as 
the result of the post-mor- 
tem examination, any one 
of the above-described ac- 
tions may be taken with the 
carcass, in the United 
States only two methods of 
procedure are followed. 
The carcasses are either 
passed for consumption or 
they are condemned for the 
offal tank. Those of the 
first group are either 

passed in their entirety or they are passed only for the preparation of lard, 
in which case the meat cannot be utilized in any form. For instance, in 
slight lesions of tuberculosis, governed by B. A. I. Order 150, Regulation 
13, section 13, rule D. or mild cases of hog cholera and swine plague, 
Regulation 13, section 10, paragraph 3, or in localized affections, such as 
bruised parts, fractures, limited lesions in one of the viscera, etc., only the 
affected parts are condemned, while the carcass may be passed for lard.] 

A. Marking of Meat 

The inspected meat should be stamped without delay. [See B. A. I. 
Order 150, Regulation 17, section 5.] For this marking the ink stamps, 
which may be cut out of metal and variously constructed, seem to 




Fig. 60. Jar stamp 



Fig. 61. Box stamp 



i6o Chap. VI. Decisions of the Veterinary Inspectors, etc. 

serve best. Rubber stamps cannot be recommended on account of their 
lesser durabihty. For convenient transportation, the box stamp illustrated 
in Fig. 6 1 is very well adapted, while for the great amount of stamping 
in abattoirs and inspection offices a box stamp similar to that of Fig. 60 
may be advantageously employed. 

For ambulatory meat inspection may be recommended the Garth- 
Muto stamp, illustrated in Fig. 62, which contains all the necessary forms 
of stamps conveniently in a case. The stamp consists of a steel handle 




Fig. 62. Garth-Muto stamping outfit (Hauptner-Berlin) 



containing a spring, a sliding ring, and five separate steel frames, which 
can be easily connected or detached from the handle by slight pressure 
and sliding the ring on the shank of the handle. The case contains besides 
the stamps a small bottle of stamping ink. a pad, and forceps. Other kinds 
of stamp constructions were devised by Garth, Liebe, Kiihnau, Hollander, 
Groning, and others. 



Marking of Meat i6i 

As stamping ink for marking of meat of native slaughtered animals 
there has been prescribed a blue ink which must be harmless, stable, must 
stick easily, and dry quickly. It should also penetrate into the superficial 
layers of the meat, and the impressions should not disappear after pickling 
or smoking. 

Branding irons of suitable construction are used for marking and 
may be heated in charcoal fire, gas flames (bunsen burner), alcohol or ben- 
zin apparatuses. The construction of a benzin brading stamp, which the 
author had constructed from a benzin soldering iron, is illustrated and 
described under Fig. 63. This simple and cheap stamping apparatus can 




Fig. 63. Benzin branding stamp, a, benzin container, one end of which is closed 
by a cap screwed on, but to which may be attached a small pumping arrangement 
for increasing the pressure in the benzin container ; b, opening for filling ; c, screw 
for the regulation of the flow of the benzin vapors; d, fastening screw for the 
stamp; e, heating pipe; f, iron box, which, filled with alcohol, serves for the heat- 
ing of the apparatus in order to develop the benzin vapors ; g, stamp. 

be highly recommended, and the burning of the meat with the benzin 
flame which streams out from the heating tube, thereby heating constantly 
the stamp, is not to be feared. For the quick heating of several branding 
stamps the large benzin heating apparatus of the firm of Hauptner, Ber- 
lin, illustrated on page 12, may be highly recommended. 

[B. A. I. Order 150, Regulation 17, sections i-ii, describes in detail 
the procedure of marking all of the meat whether passed, retained, or 
condemned. Doctor Melvin is quoted on this subject as follows: 

"The marking is done by means of a metal or rubber stamp and a purple indeli- 
ble ink, and the words thus stamped are "U. S. Inspected and Passed," or an abbre- 
viation of these words, with the establishment number. The number is one assigned 
to the house by the Department at the time inspection is begun. It is registered in 
the Department records, and besides serving as a convenient means of reference, 
it provides a sure method of tracing meat about which questions may subsequently 
arise. 

This mark is absolutely necessary under the law to procure the movement of 
the meats between States. The law forbids carriers to transport from one State 
to another any meats that are not so marked, except the meats of farmers and of 
retail butchers and dealers. It may as well be repeated here, in order to emphasize 
the statement, that the Federal law does not and cannot forbid the carriage of 
unmarked meats inside a State, so that in the absence of State laws the carriers may, 
unmolested, carry any kinds of meat from one part of a State to another."] 

T2 



i62 Chap. VI. Decisions of the Veterinary Inspectors, etc. 

B< Disposition of Condemned Meat 

If a condemnation is to be made in accordance with the enumerated 
decisions of paragraphs b-h, of page 158, the inspector should temporarily 
seize the affected parts or the entire carcass and notify the owner imme- 
diately, as well as the police authorities, stating also the cause of the con- 
demnation. The police authorities have to determine the further disposi- 
tion of the condemned meat, and notify the owner immediately of the 
course taken. 

The details of the method have been determined by the individual 
state governments, thereby greatly facilitating the work of the inspector 
after their notification of the police authorities, etc. 

[The disposition of condemned meat in the United States is carried 
out in accordance with B. A. I. Order 150, Regulations 14-16, which con- 
tain the instructions as to the course to be followed with condemned car- 
casses and meat-food products.] 

The disposition of the meat which is to be declared of inferior value 
(non-marketable) and which was described on page 158, under 2c, 
belongs to the authority of the inspector, providing there are no other pro- 
visions made by special state regulations. 

1, Meat Passed with Restrictions (passed conditionally) 

There are five methods employed to remove the injurious properties 
of meat belonging to this group : Boiling, steaming in steam boiling appa- 
ratus, rendering, pickling, and refrigerating. 

(a) The boiling method is well adapted for the destruction of all 
animal parasites occurring in meat and also of the vegetative forms of the 
infectious disease-producers, which the meat may contain. For the killing 
of spores, on the other hand, simple boiling is not sufficiently certain, and 
for chemical poisons it is, as a rule, entirely ineffective. The satisfactory 
boiling of meat can be easily recognized by the appearance of a gray or 
white coloration of the meat, which should affect even the deepest layers. 

The simple boiling in open boilers can be easily carried out every- 
where, but it has the disadvantage that in the process a comparatively 
large quantity of the soluble nutritive substances are extracted from the 
meat. 

(b) Steaming of meat, in a steam boiling apparatus, is an innova- 
tion due to the united efforts of Hertwig, Duncker, and Rohrbeck, in Ber- 
lin, and which has been further improved by numerous veterinarians and 
technical men. This method has for its purpose to obtain a high tempera- 
ture in the inside of the affected meat, which is infected with certain dis- 
eases, through the application of steam under pressure, thereby rendering 



Disposition of Condemned Meat 



163 



larger quantities of meat suitable for human food with as slight influence 
as possible on its nutritive value. The apparatus which served at first for 
this purpose, and which was also installed in numerous abattoirs, is Rohr- 
beck's steam disinfector. ■ It was originally destined for the disinfection 
of clothes, but has been equipped for the sterilization of meat. 

In the course of years various other steam boiling apparatuses were 
constructed which gradually forced the Rohrbeck apparatus to the back- 
ground. Concerning the advantages and disadvantages of these disinfec- 
tors, as well as regarding steam boiling itself, time has developed much 




Fig. 64. Meat steamer, according to Engineer Honnicke in Berlin-Schoneberg. 
Vertical section. 



special literature. At present the following are of foremost interest: 
Honnicke's meat steamer and the meat steamer of the firm of Rud. H. 
Hartmann, of Berlin. 

Honnicke's meat steamer is represented in cross-section in Fig. 64. 

The sterilizer proper consists of the body (i) which, on its lower side, is 
equipped with a double bottom. On this steam double bottom the water for the 
production of the sterilizing steam is located. A pipe (3) which contains a conve- 
niently placed stop-valve, conducts the steam from the boiler to the double bottom, 



164 Chap. VI. Decisions of the Veterinary Inspectors, etc. 

which heats the water contained therein. The condensed water which is formed 
by the heating or boiler steam is drawn off by a pipe (4) into a conveniently 
located condensed water receiver. The containers or baskets (5) receive the meat. 
The movable door (6), which is attached to side hinges, is closed hermetically with 
the aid of clamp screws. In order to draw off the broth conveniently a stop cock 
(8) is supplied. 

At the side of the sterilizer proper stands the condensor, which is connected 
with the first by a pipe 11, which draws off air, the mixture of steam and air, and 
steam from the body i. The pipe opens into a chamber 12 above the bottom 13. 
The chamber 9 is protected above from the falling dirt by a loose cover. It 
receives a connection (14) for the supply of fresh water and a tap cock (15) for draw- 
ing off hot water. To the lower chamber 10 another chamber 16 is connected, 
which, through the pipes 16', 16", connects with the outside. An emptying cock (17) 
serves for drawing off the condensed water. In the operation of the apparatus the 
meat is placed into the baskets, the double bottom is filled with water, and the 
chamber 9 of the condensor is filled with fresh water; chamber 10 must be empty 
at the commencement of the operation. After this has been completed the door 6 
is closed, and the steam valve in pipe 3 is opened, when the apparatus may be left 
alone. There is no air cock present. At the commencement of the heating of the 
water to 100° C, before the formation of steam, the air volume is warmed to a 
certain extent, and expands correspondingly. At this time some of th.e air has 
already entered the chambers 11, 12, 10, and 16 from the body i. At the com- 
mencement of the steam ' formation a steam-air mixture develops, which also 
reaches the chambers 12 and 10, through the pipe 11, in the proportion of the dis- 
placement to which it is subjected by the newly formed steam, to the extent of 
the heat not absorbed by the meat. From this steam-air mixture the steam con- 
tents is now condensed in the chambers 12 and 10, and the air leaves through the 
pipe 16, while the condensed water accumulates on the bottom of chamber j6. 
There it gradually rises higher, until it finally closes the lower mouth of chamber 
16. The location of this mouth is placed at a selected point so that at the time it 
gets closed all the air has certainly disappeared from body i. After the closing 
of chamber 16, by the condensation, the development of pressure commences, that 
is, the steam pressure in the sterilizer begins to rise. The maximal heighth of the 
pressure may be established by the heighth of pipe 16. This may be extended as 
high as it is desired. After the closing of the lower mouth of chamber 16, the 
water of condensation rises under the expansion which exists in body i, and 
effects a counter pressure against the present steam pressure. At a corresponding 
heighth the pipe 16 is led either directly to the outside or into the canalization 
If the pressure in body i should reach such a heighth that the water in pipe 16 
would exceed the highest point, it would then overfiow. But this is in practice 
prevented by other arrangements. 

One of these arrangements has already been mentioned in discussing the abstrac- 
tion of air : the steam condensor. The surplus of steam, which -on account of its 
pressure aims toward the exit of chamber 16 which is closed by water, must pass 
the cool surfaces of the condensor formed by the chamber 12 and the bottom 13. 
As soon as the steam from the body passes in here <-he cool surfaces abstract from 
the steam a part of its temperature and expansion, with its resulting action on the 
column of water is diminished and the expelling of water therefore is checked. It 
should be remembered that at the same time the meat contained in the apparatus 
continually abstracts heat from the sterilizing steam so that only a small fraction 
of the steam produced in the double bottom comes into consideration in the con- 



Disposition of Condemned Meat 



165 



densor. To the same extent as the taking up of heat by the meat is reduced, the 
droppnig of juice from the meat into the fluid of the double bottom is likewise 
reduced. The results of both conditions are that the fluid of the double bottom — 
that is on the heating surface — gradually becomes poorer in water ; on the other 
hand it becomes continually richer in constituents, among which fat is the most 
difficult to heat. This increasing concentration of the broth stands in direct oppo- 
site relation to the quality of heat absorption of the meat. The consequence of 
this is that steam production and the quality of heat absorption become proportional 
to each other, as the steam production diminishes with the loss of water in the 
broth. Therefore the last described procedure prevents exceeding the desired 
highest expansion. Honnicke's meat steamer is also advertised as an apparatus 
equipped with direct heating arrangements. 

The construction of Hartmann's new meat steamer, Franke's system, is 



Dam pi 



futltetHiis mi 
BoulUon-tnlnciK 




•BouaUuMlJell 



^ Con3ei\sniS5«T 



Fig. 65. Hartmann's meat steamer, system Franke, in vertical section 



illustrated in Fig. 65. The fundamental idea on which the construction is 
based, which originated with the deceased veterinarian M. Franke, of the Berlin 
abattoirs, consists in eliminating from the sterilizing chamber all the air by filling it 
with water and by placing the meat into the boiling water to prevent a considerable 
soaking by the formation of a superficial coagulated layer. The discoverer directed 
his attention in the first place to the very important process of the abstraction of the 



i66 Chap. VI. Decisions of the Veterinary Inspectors, etc. 

air, as it is well known that where air is present no other body can be there at the 
same time, not even steam, and further, that the air on account of its slight heat 
conducting qualities prevents the passage of heat from the sterilizing steam into the 
meat. In this apparatus the abstraction of the air is accomplished in such a manner 
that the vertical boiler is closed air tight, and is entirely filled with hot water, which 
afterward, in the course of the process, is displaced from the boiler in the largest 
part by the developing steam. The abstraction of the air in the apparatus is com- 
plete without doubt. The sterilizer consists of a vertical boiler, which rests on 
4 legs, and is surrounded by a steam jacket up to its upper angular reinforcement. 
Above the angle-iron an overflow pipe branches off, which unites by a three-way cock 
with the emptying pipe of the inside chamber of the jacket, to which the condensation 
drain pipe is applied at the lowest part. The upper closing of the boiler is accom- 
plished by a cover which is arched toward the inside, the inside surface of which 
reaches deeper into the cylinder than the heighth of the mouth of the overflow pipe. 
The handling of the cover and the perforated meat baskets is accomplished by 
the aid of a wheel-crane, the block being attached to the side of the apparatus or to 
one of its legs. After the cylindrical chamber is filled with water to a certain heighth, 
which is brought to a boiling temperature through the heating of the steam jacket, 
the baskets containing the meat are placed into the boiling water, the lowest basket 
resting on several shelves of angle-iron. Care sTiould be taken that the highest layers 
of the meat are submerged in the water. The water cools off several degrees while 
putting in the meat, but is again soon brought to a boiling point by the continual 
heating of the jacket. After the meat has been boiled for about S minutes in the 
open boiler the cover is placed on and closed steam tight, whereby all the super- 
fluous water is displaced through the overflow pipe and renders the boiler free of air. 
In keeping open the lower drainage vent the steam jacket remains in operation. The 
steam developed from the water of the boiler displaces by this time the water up to a 
heighth of the bottom drainage stand-pipe. As soon as steam escapes from the 
delivery-cock, the draining valve is closed, and the remainder of the water is con- 
tinually evaporated; in this steam the meat is well cooked. On the bottom of the 
sterilizer the dripping juice forms with the water a bouillon, on the surface of which 
a layer of fat collects. After a certain time the steam jacket ceases to be operated, 
and the apparatus is left to itself until the tei"mination of the sterilization. After 
the opening and removal of the cover, the meat baskets are taken out with the aid 
of the wheel-crane, the stand-pipe is lifted, and the meat-broth is drained off 
through the draining valve. The apparatus is also placed on the market in the form 
of a quadrangular box into which the meat baskets are placed by hand and made 
to lay alongside each other. The heating surface in this form of apparatus lays on 
the bottom of the box. 

In Franke's apparatus with direct heating, the forged iron boiler hangs by an 
upper angle-ring in a forged iron casing, which is covered with fire-clay on the 
inside, representing the covering of the boiler. The casing possesses on the front 
face a preliminary firing place, the heating fumes of which envelope the boiler 
directly from all sides and escapes on the back side of the boiler through, an upper 
draft as flue. A mercury safety stand-pipe, besides a safety valve and manom- 
eter prevents exceeding the permissible pressure. The overflow pipe which has 
been already discussed in detail in the description of the apparatus for steam heating, 
has its continuance in the inside of the boiler up to the lowest surface of the water, 
beneath the lowest of the two meat baskets. It works in a similar way as was 
described in its construction for steam heat. To obtain the required pressure for 
forcing out the water through the overflow pipe, the safety valve is weighted down 



Disposition of Condemned Meat 



ity 



by a weight pushed down on its lever until a pressure of 0.05 an atmosphere is 
obtained, which, after the escape of the water, is again removed. Afterward the 
fire is drawn out of the box and the sterilization is concluded with the heat con- 
tained in the fire-clay lining. This heat suffices to completely convert into steam 
the water which is contained in the bottom of the boiler. An advantage of this 
apparatus is its possibility of easy transportation, and it is always in readiness to 
be put up for immediate operation. The flue has only to be connected with a 
chimney of the building by making an opening into it. 

Another construction of meat steamer has been placed on the market by the 
firm of Rud. A. Hartmann, under the designation of Hartmann's New Meat Steril- 
izer, patent of Becker and Ulmann, which is illustrated in Fig. 66, and which is also 
constructed for direct firing. 




Fig. 66. Hartmann's new meat sterilizer in vertical section. Becker and 
Ulmann's patent. 

The sterilizer consists of a forged iron vertical cylinder a, which in front is 
supplied with an easily moving door, and on the lower part it has a cleating for 
steam heating c. From the deepest point of the inside room a pipe f branches off 
to the receiving tank g, which is set up to the side of the sterilizer. The cock h, 
serves for the draining of the entire apparatus. The neatly tinned meat baskets i, 
which are constructed of perforated sheet-iron, are for the purpose of holding the 
meat to be sterilized, and they can be comfortably slid into the apparatus and also 
drawn out on ledges which are fastened to the sides of the cylinder. The water 
which condenses in the steam cleating c, is separated by an automatic condensation 
drawer k. A cock serves for the abstraction of air from the inside of the apparatus. 
Before beginning the operation the boiler is filled with pure water to the level I, 
then the meat is sprinkled with spices, placed into the perforated baskets i, shoved 
into the apparatus and the door closed. Then through the valve e, the steam cleat- 
ing c is heated up whereby the water is soon brought to evaporation. An auto- 
matic arrangement for the abstraction of air separates the air contained in :he 
apparatus during the development of steam, so that soon the air is sufficiently 
abstracted from the entire apparatus and is entirely filled up with steam. From this 
moment on the meat is subjected to the influence of steam at 100° C. The same 
condenses on the meat, and heats it up, the condensate drips below, and is again 
converted into steam on the heating surface c. 



Chap. VI. Decisions of the Veterinary Inspectors, etc. 



With the increased warming of the meat the consumption of steam decreases. 
But inasmuch as the steam production on the heating surface c remains approxi- 
mately the same, the resuh is that more steam is produced than is used up. 
Through this a slight pressure develops, which presses the water from the sterilizer 
to the receiving tank g. The heating surface c is consequently more or less deprived 
of water, and in the same relation the steam production is diminished. In this way 
the balancing of the steam production and the heat absorption of the meat is spon- 
taneously accomplished. The pressure in the sterilizer can never rise higher than 
the corresponding pressure in the receiving tank g, and this amounts at maximum 
to about 500 mm., when the temperature of the steam is fully 100° C. As soon as 
the temperature penetrates to the inside of the meat and reaches 80° C, the steam 
is shut off by the closing of valve e, and then the apparatus is opened and its con- 
ten'.s removed, and the bouillon is drawn off by the cock h. 

In order to control the temperature 
obtained in the steamed meat and for 
the outside indication for the conclusion 
of the sterilization, it is advisable to place 
into one of the pieces of meat an elec- 
tric contact thermometer, of which a 
simple construction is represented in 
Fig. 67. Other similar instruments were 
constructed by Franke, Flonnicke, and 
others. 

The signal thermometer, Honnicke's 
model, is represented in Fig. 68. This 
instrument contains a mercury signal 
thermometer, in which the gradua- 
tions are made as fine as possible, and 
is combined with a metallic protective 
casing. The thermometer proper con- 
sists of a glass body a, with mercury 
bulb a', and capillary tube a". Into the 
mercury bulb on the lower part is a 
platinum wire b, melted in, and a similar 
kind b' is applied in the capiLary tube 
a" at a corresponding heighth which 
should indicate the temperature to be 
attained by signal. This thermometer 
is placed into a metallic tube which 
is provided with a slit c', which is 
closed below by a perforated winding 
stopper a, made of insulating material. Through this perforation the 
platinum wire b is inserted and is pressed in with the aid of the perfora- 
tion e' and a contact screw e" , which is supplied with a knob. Above, on the 
casing c, rests a metallic plate f, through which the platinum wire b' is inserted. 
This is then also pressed in with the aid of the perforation g' and a contact screw g'' 
which is supplied with a knob g. After the mercury column has expanded at the 
desired temperature to the upper platinum wire, the current circuit closes. The 
current runs from the current producer through the conduit wire i to the ringing 
apparatus and again to the current producer, whereby the signal is sounded. In 
employing the signal thermometer, it is inserted with the mercury bulb downwards 




Fig 67 



Fig 68 

Fig. 67. Electric mer- 
cury contact thermometer. 

Fig. 68. Electric sig- 
nal thermometer, models 
of H o n n i c k e-B e r 1 i n 
( Schoneberg). 



Disposition of Condemned Meat 169 

perpendicularljf into a piece of meat of medium weiglit. Before the insertion it is 
advisable to be convinced that not a drop of mercury is torn from the column. If 
this is the case it is returned to the other portion of the mercury through shaking 
or by some other method. It is also advisable to observe whether a contact exists by 
turning the squeeze screw to" the right. Both insulated wires leading to the instru- 
ment are conducted into the meat steamer of Honnicke (Fig. 64) simply through 
the notch in the door. At the place where the wires touch the border of the door 
either a simple sheet of paper is placed around them or they are covered with a 
paper husk supplied with the instrument. In closing the door the wires are 
squeezed between the border and the jam of the door; this, however, does not pro- 
duce any inconvenience in the tight closing of the door. 

The thorough steaming of the meat with the various apparatuses requires, in 
accordance with the regulations, a temperature of 80° C. in the inside of the pieces of 
meat for 2-2^ hours. In this process the loss of weight of the meat is considerably 
less than in cooking under ordinary circumstances, the difference amounting in beef 
to 25-26 per cent., and in pork to 12-13 per cent. The meat remains very juicy, of 
a spicy, pleasant taste and odor, reminding one of roasted meat. 

The apparatuses are principally utilized in rendering uninjurious the meat of tuber- 
cular animals in certain forms of the disease, as well as in trichinous and measly 
meat. Other various kinds of disinfectors serve for the same purpose as the above- 
discussed apparatuses, as for instance, the disinfector of Budenberg-Dortmund and 
the steam cooking and rendering apparatus of Seiffert (W. Boese, Jr., in Breslau). 

(c) Regarding the process of melting out fat which is employed 
for the extraction of fat from diseased animals (tuberculosis, measles) 
only brief mention will be made. 

The cut or mashed fat is rendered in ordinary open kettles, during 
which the temperature rises to 150° C. Also the described meat steamers 
of Honnicke, Hartmann, and others, as well as the cleated boilers with 
steam running through, are adapted for this purpose. However, the 
liquid fat must not be drawn off before a temperature of at least 100° C. 
is registered. The connective tissue residue of the fat tissues is then 
scooped off and the latter are deprived of fat by pressure as much as 
possible. 

[In the United States carcasses showing lesions which justify the 
passing of the tissues for lard have to be subjected, according to the B. A. 
I. Order 150, Regulation 13, section 10, paragraph 3, and section 13, rule 
D, to a temperature of 220° F. for not less than four hours.] 

(d) With the commercial method of pickling, measly meat may also 
be rendered uninjurious if the pickling is carried out sufficiently long 
(3-4 weeks) and if the pieces of meat do not exceed over 2 kg. The 
destroying action of the pickling is very slight on pathogenic bacteria or 
their products; nevertheless, it may be applied with the meat of hogs 
which are condemned by the inspectors on account of swine erysipelas, 
hog cholera, and swine plague. 



170 Chap. VI. Decisions of the Veterinary Inspectors, etc. 

[Such dispositions are not admissible in the United States with the 
carcasses affected with the above-mentioned diseases, and the regulations 
governing the disposition of such affected carcasses will be referred to 
under the discussion of those diseases.] 

(e) The method designated as "thorough chilling" is employed 
exclusively on slightly measled beef, and serves to keep the meat in a 
fresh condition. The action of low temperature on the measles does 
not destroy them, but they lose their power to develop during the time 
the meat is retained. The employment of this method necessitates well- 
arranged meat-cooling rooms in all seasons. 

The sale of conditionally passed meat which has been rendered fit for 
human consumption is only permitted after making known this condition, 
and in accordance with the instructions after it has been satisfactorily 
marked. The more special measures concerning this marking are left to 
the state governments. The sale of such meat should always be carried 
out under the restrictions corresponding to those mentioned on page 153 
for the Freibank. 

Permission for the conditionally passed meat to be utilized by the 
owner in his own household is not excluded after the meat has been ren- 
dered fit for consumption if the owners are not butchers, meat dealers, 
hotel or restaurant keepers. 

2, Meat of Inferior Quality 

The sale and utilization of meat which has been declared of inferior 
quality nonmarketable) should be followed under the same conditions 
as were explained above for the conditionally passed meat. 

[The regulations governing the meat inspection in the United States 
do not contain provisions for passing certain dressed carcasses condi- 
tionally. An exception is only made with certain slight cases of tuber- 
culosis and hog cholera, when the carcasses may be passed conditionally 
for lard. Accordingly, the Freibank system and the sterilization of 
meat is not practiced in the United States at the present time.] 

3, Absolutely Condemned Meat 

The harmless disposition of meat condemned as unfit for human con- 
sumption has to be affected by a higher degree of heat (cooking or 
steaming until the maceration of the soft parts, dry distillation, burning) 
by chemical means until the dissolution of the soft parts or through bury- 
ing. The products obtained by the first-mentioned method may be util- 
ized in the industrial arts. 

Before burying, deep cuts should be made into the meat, and sprinkled 
over with lime or fine dry sand ; or tar, crude oil (carbolic acid, cresol), or 
alpha-naphthylamin in 5 per cent, solution should be poured over it (dena- 



Disposition of Condemned Meat 



171 



turing). The latter procedure is also recommended when the disposi- 
tion of the condemned meat cannot take place immediately under the 
supervision of the inspector. The marking of the condemned meat can be 
omitted only on single portions of meat, when a harmless disposition of 
the condemned parts is carried out immediately in the presence of the 
inspector. Otherwise all condemned organs and parts must be positively 
marked with a condemned stamp, whereby the condemnation becomes 
official. 

For the temporary retaining of condemned meat, especially in larger abattoirs, 
special containers should be provided from which removal of condemned parts 
should be impossible except by the proper authorities. For the collection of such 
meats a box on a cart frame is illustrated in Fig. 69. The condemned part is 




Fig. 69. Collecting box for condemned meat on cart structure, in section. Model 
of Honnicke-Berlin (Schoneberg). 



thrown into the trough c, and the crank is turned around 180°, whereby the piece 
drops into the box A. The taking put of the condemned pieces without the removal 
of the locked cover with the trough attached to it , is impossible, as the trough fills 
out the opening of the box and besides in turning over the box the trap board 
immediately covers the split between the trough wall and the box cover. 

(a) The simple boiling of the meat in open boilers until the soft 
parts are falling apart is carried out in old flaying plants in order to obtain 
the fat, bones and the mass of meat boiled to pieces ; the method is less 
rational and from a hygienic standpoint it is not without objection. 



172 Chap. VI. Decisions of the Veterinary Inspectors, etc. 

(b) BoiHng meat to pieces in a high-pressure steam apparatus 
includes the advantages of a certain sterihzation, together with the gain- 
ing of vahiable products. The apparatus works with expended water 
steam, oonveying to the meat a temperature up to 150° C, and the meat 
is broken up to such an extent that the principal constituents may be 
obtained separately (bones, fat, insoluble albumen, and other substances 
as well as glue substances). 

Of the high-pressure steam apparatuses the following are most exten- 
sively in operation : 

(A) The simple steam digester (steam barrel) is as a rule, a perpen- 
dicularly constructed iron container, supplied with a sifting bottom, which 
can be closed steam tight on the top by a cover. Below it is equipped with 
arrangements for the draining of fluids, and it also has a manhole. On 
various parts of the digester, steam of 2-3 atmospheric pressures may be 
conveyed to the pieces of meat placed in the apparatus. 

After sufficient steaming, the fluids which are collected below the sifting bot- 
tom (condensed water, meat-broth, and fat) are drained off, and the firmer masses 
still intact are removed from the digester. From the latter the bones are utilized 
under certain conditions for the preparations of bone flour, and from the other parts 
muscle flour is obtained, after they are first dry-cured and ground up in mills ; or 
the bones are dried and ground with the meat and the product is called "animal 
body flour," which is advantageously utilized as a fertilizer and food substance. 
While the fat serves for the manufacture of soap, ointments, etc., the broth, which is 
a burdensome by-product on account of its great decomposing qualities, can be util- 
ized only to a certain extent at such places where it can be immediately and freshly 
used as a soil fertilizer. 

(B) Similar to the simple digester is the flaying disinfector of Riet- 
schel and Henneberg, the construction of which is of greater advantage 
than that of the former. Besides it is equipped with accessory apparatus 
for an improved method of obtaining the fat and for the condensation of 
the evaporations. The apparatus is based on the system first employed 
by veterinarian De La Croix, director of the Antwerp abattoirs for the 
utilization of the animal parts. The drying and comminuting of the 
cooked masses are accomplished by special mechanisms. 

Similar to the flaying disinfector is the old Hartmann's extraction 
apparatus. 

While in the previously mentioned apparatus the rendering process 
with the steam in the digesters is only preparatory, since it is necessary to 
transport the nonliquid masses from the digester to the drying and 
grinding contrivances, the following rendering methods possess the 
advantage that the entire process is carried out in one and the same appa- 
ratus. The latter is not opened during the rendering and processing, and 
at the end only the finished products are apparent. 



Disposition of Condemned Meat 



173 



(C) Podewil's system, which has been in use for 23 years, was first 
to inaugurate horizontally constructed, rotating drums for the steaming 
of animal parts, and in this way made possible the sterilization, drying, and 
grinding of the product in a single closed apparatus. The construction 
characteristics of Podewil's system, which in the course of years expe- 
rienced various improvements, and which is at this time manufactured by 
the Podewil factories in Augsberg, is illustrated in Fig. 71, in connection 
with the following description of its operation : 

Podewil's rotating drum consists of an inside cylinder, an outside heat cleating 
•and also beatable double bottoms. An accessory receptacle called "hot watei- 
montejus" is also supplied with steam heating arrangements for the heating of the 
waafcing fluid which it contains. The liquid conduct pipe Z, and the fat drawing- 
pipe F , are connected with the drum by hoUandic screwing, and are easily taken off. 




Fig. 70. Section through Podewil drum with specially large manhole. 

With the fat conduit is connected a Liebig's cooler K, and a gas separator G. The 
steam is conveyed and the condensed water from the heat cleating is led off 
through one of the hollow bearing plugs of the apparatus, while the steam from the 
inside of the cylinder is drawn off through the other bearing plug. 

For the rendering of large undivided animal carcasses (as for instance in 
anthrax, glanders) there has been recently constructed Podewil's tympanum with 
double manhole, Fig. 70, one of which is of such a size that even the large carcasses 
can be placed undivided into the drum. 

Accessory machines are necessary, such as steam boiler, steam engine, or other 
motors and an air pump with a condensator. 

Description of the Operation 



The carcass or material is placed through the manhole M into the Podewil 
apparatus; the manhole is then closed steam tight,. and the air is removed from the 
apparatus by the aid of an air pump. At the same time the fluid in the "hot water- 



174 Chap. \'I. Decisions of the A'eterinary Inspectors, etc. 

montejus" is heated with boiler .?teain to 3 atmospheres of pressure. Next a por- 
tion of the heated fluid is pressed by the conduit Z into the apparatus, and the heat 
cleating- is heated by boiler steam, whereby the inside of the C3dinder develops a 
pressure of 3 atmospheres. This pressure is maintained for about 4 hours, and the 
apparatus is from time to time rotated. Through the action of the hot fluid, all 
disease germs are destroyed with a certainty, the carcass is cooked to a pulp, and 
the fat substances are separated. The remaining quantity of fluid from the "hot 
water-montejus" is then pressed over into the apparatus; thus the inside of the 
cylinder is filled to the top, and the material is again washed through and lixiviated. 
The fat swimming on the surface then flows through the opened cock F into the 
conduit F, passes the cooler A' and gas separator G, and is drawn through the 
drawing pipe R in a pure cooled state into fat barrels in a condition for 
immediate sale. 




Fig. 71. Section through the apparatus of PodeAvil's system 



The removal of the fat is followed immediately by the drying of the other 
products in the Podewil apparatus. Previously to this a like quantity of fluid to that 
which has been taken from the "montejus" is returned in order to be used again in 
a similar way during the next operation. 

The drying and grinding of the carcass material is accomplished by the action 
of the boiler steam led into the heat cleating, which thoroughly dries the material 
in about 6 hours, and with the aid of the roller W, which lays free in the rotating 
apparatus, it is converted into a finely ground dry product ready for the market 
(meat flour). After the manhole AI is opened and the rotation is continued for 
about 10 minutes longer, the appai-atus empties itself into the carts placed under 
the opening. 

The vapors from the products developed during the drying process inside of 
the cylinder are sucked out through the curved pipe bj'^ the air pump and are then 
conveyed into 3 condensator where they are mixed with water and condensed. This 
condensation water is the only waste water obtained; it is entirely uninjurious, and 
is drained off as clean water into the sewer or into the sinking hole. The slight 
quantities of uncondensible gases are conveyed under the fire grate of the steam 
boiler and are burned there. 

The pure hot water condensed in the heat cleating of the apparatus is refed 
■'nto the steam boiler. The entire process lasts onh' 10-12 hours. 



Disposition of Condemned Meat 



175 



The utilization of fat and animal flour with the Podewil's method depends 
naturally on the material to be worked up. In the rendering works of Dresden, by 
a mixed working of carcasses and meat-inspection condemnations a yearly average 
of ID per cent, fat and 20.87 per cent, animal flour was obtained. The latter con- 
sisted in the average of 9.64 per cent, nitrogen (60.22 per cent, raw protein) 12.70 
per cent, fat, 18.87 per cent, ash (in which 7.19 per cent, phosphoric acid was con- 
tained) and 6.91 per cent water. The animal flour on account of the large quantity 
of nitrogen, fat, and phosphoric acid which it contains makes it a valuable fattening 
food substance for hogs, cattle, fowls, and fish, the uninjurious effects of which 
were extensively investigated by Glage. 

(D) Rud. A. Hartmann's system of Berlin (Fig. 72) is similar to the above- 
described system of Podewil. It is distinguished from the latter first of all by the 
perforated drum, which rotates inside of a double walled, stationary drum, by ren- 




; t ''^ 'ji y^>i^ ' { i i* i> '^ ' y' y °j»y ^ ' ° y ' ^^ 



Fig. 72. Model of Hartmann's system of carcass-destruction and utilization 
apparatus. 



dering without the action of direct steam, which is produced in the evaporator by 
steam from the boiler and is conveyed from the evaporator to the extractor; and 
also by the continual separation of the fat and glue water during the cooking. The 
illustration herewith shows the design of the entire system of Hartmann's appa- 
ratus, which consists of 5 single containers fed by pipes. The large horizontal cylin- 
drical container is the extraction and drying apparatus proper. This contains in 
the inside a sieving drum which receives the raw material, and which can be rotated 
by the engine a. Here the carcass material is steamed through, extracted and 
finally dried to animal flour ready for the market. The fluids extracted from the 
raw material — fat, glue, and broth, flow through the pipe b, into the second con- 
tainer which is the fat separator, in which the fat is separated from the glue broth. 



1/6 Chap VI. Decisions oi the Veterinary Inspectors, etc. 

The fat collects in the upper conical part of the container, becomes visible on the 
indication glass c, attached to it, and can be drawn off by opening the valve d, 
which is applied at the highest point to the fat tank, while the defattened glue 
broth passes spontaneously into the third container, the recipient. The pipe e con- 
nects the recipient with the extraction apparatus. From the recipient the glue 
broth is periodically conveyed b}- the opening of cock f into the fourth container to 
the so-called evaporator in order to be here evaporated with the aid of a coiled heat- 
ing arrangement to a gelatinous consistence. 

The steam developed in this process from the glue broth is not conveyed to 
special condensation arrangements and precipitated with cold water as in the old 
apparatuses, but it is returned to the extractor in order to serve as working steam 
for the cooking and drying process. 

For this purpose a pipe g leads from the evaporator to the extractor which 
divides into two branches, of which the one h can be closed by a valve and leads 
to the inside of the apparatus, and therefore to the raw material, while the other i 
can be also closed bj' a valve, and is led into the cleating which envelops the entire 
extraction apparatus. This pipe permits the utilization of the steam which devel- 
ops in the evaporator from the glue broth, according to the desire, either for the 
steaming or for the drjang of the carcass material. The water extracted thereby in 
the form of steam from the evaporator reaches either the extractor or the cleating 
and returns again through the cock h or cock p into the fat separator and the 
recipient. Accordingly a constant circulation takes place in the apparatus of the 
water originating from the carcass itself. Therefore the more water is abstracted 
in the form of steam from the evaporator naturall}- the more concentrated will 
become the glue broth, until at the conclusion of the working process the finished 
thickened glue jelly is obtained in the evaporator. At that time in the extractor 
the finished dried animal flour is obtained, and in the recipient and in the fat sepa- 
rator t-emains the distilled meat water; the fat on the other hand has been already 
drawn off into the fat container during the working process. 

The fifth container is placed above the extractor and serves for temporary 
receiving of the thickened glue broth, in order to convej' the same again at the 
proper time to the extractor, in case it is desired to work up together the extracted 
meat and bone masses with the glue jelly to a glue-containing animal flour. 

The opening in the extractor which can be closed with the cover ;», is of such 
a size that the sieving drum maj^ be placed into it and also removed and replaced 
again in case of repair. Besides the large cover opening (with- the exception of 
the smallest size apparatus) permits also the introduction of undivided carcasses. 

The inside of the extractor contains the revolvable sieving drum, which is 
closed by the removable cover n, and on the external circumference it is equipped 
with stirring arms o. 

After the conclusion of the extraction, which on an average requires four hours, 
the sieving drum is made to rotate and at the same time by the heating of the 
double cleating the drying of the extracted meat and bone masses contained in the 
extractor is carried out. The material, which by the thorough steaming becomes 
entire!}^ soft, is ground up in the sieving drum, falls through the sieve holes, and 
thus reaches into the space between the sieving drum and the heated double cleating. 
Here it is seized by the stirring arms, is alwa3's brought in contact with new sur- 
faces to the heated surface, and at the same time it is ground to a powder. The 
vapors set free from the drying product are sucked out with the aid of a wet air 
pump, and precipitated with direct contact with cold water. Other noncondensable 
gases are conveyed under the furnace and are burned there. 



Disposition of the Condemned Meat 



177 



The drying process in the smaller apparatuses of Hartmann is calculated to 
take about 2 hours while in the larger ones from 3-5 hours. After this time the 
entire dried product is contained as a pulverized animal flour outside of the sieve 
drum, and can be emptied from the apparatus by removing the cover and turning 
the extractor 180°. 

The glue steam condensate which develops in the double cleating of the 
extractor during the drying process, the "distilled meat water," accumulates in the 
accessory containers, the fat separator and recipient, which are supplied before the 
commencement of the drying process, and can be drained from them after the con- 
clusion of the working process into the sewer. If there is no sewer then the waste 
water which in itself is clean and sterile is collected in a special cooling basin, from 
which it is drained off after cooling into the mill trough. 

Recently the firms Hochmuth, in Dresden, as well as Venuleth and Ellenberger, 
in Darmstadt, and Grove in Charlottenburg, Berlin, constructed apparatuses which 
ar«» based on the same principle as the two above-described systems. While the 
last two have not yet been sufficiently tested in practice, the cheap apparatus of 
Hochmuth has already proven itself very useful in various rendering works. 

(E) A sterilization, but 
not an entirely complete 
comminution of animal 
parts, is obtained by Dr. 
Garth's collecting con- 
tainer and destroying ap- 
paratus (Fig. ys), which 
is constructed in the 
boiler works of Gohrig 
and Leuchs A-G., in 
Darmstadt. Regarding 
the operation, productive- 
ness, advantages, and de- 
fects of the apparatus, 
information is given in 
the publications of Garth, 
Clausen, Resow, and 
others. 

The apparatus consists 
of a double walled con- 
tainer, which can be eas- 
ily turned by hand 
around its transverse 
axis ; it is constructed in 
three sizes of 300-800 kg. 
contents. If the appa- 
ratus is not worked the 
container is turned in 
such a way that the 
upper opening lies at a man's heighth. After opening the closed, gas-tight 
valve the products are introduced into a cylindrical receiver and fall from here, 
after they have passed another air-tight closing valve, into the inside of the boiler. 
A removal of the contents is impossible. 

When the working up of the product is to take place, the closing head is 
removed and a cover is tightly screwed on. For about 10-14 hours steam is con- 

13 




Fig. 72- External view of Dr. Garth's collecting re 
ceptacle and destruction apparatus. 



178 Chap. VI. Decisions of the Veterinary Inspectors, etc. 

veyed into the inside of the cleating at 5 atmospheres of pressure. The fluid con- 
stituents are drawn off in accordance with necessity into the recipient standing at 
the side of the apparatus ; the fat may be drawn oflf here. Near the recipient is 
located a stirring valve to mix the glue water with water from a conduit and lead 
it into the sewer. During the steaming the container is here and there turned for 
a thorough mixing of the material, and to offer the steam new points of action. 
As end products are obtained fat, glue broth and residues. The latter forms 
after the cooling a brown, soil-like crumbling mass intermixed with bones and 
fibers, which, after a further communication, is utilized as food for hogs and fowls. 

(c) A chemical destruction of the meat may be obtained in various 
ways. An older method consists in the treatment of the meat with sul- 
phuric acid and steam. The meat is placed into acid tanks or into wooden 
containers lined with lead sheets, is poured over with sulphuric acid at 
45° B., and then the steam is conducted into the containers. From this 
a breaking up and loss of fat in the meat takes place. The fat is skimmed 
off, and the remaining shiny pulpy mass is mixed with bonemeal, lime 
phosphate, etc., and dried. In the drying quite disagreeable odors 
develop, so that the method can only find application in fertilizer plants. 

Recently Franke has recommended treating condemned meat with a 
3 per cent, solution of sodium hydrate (NaOH) for about 24 hours, and 
afterward to boil it for 2-3 hours with steam or direct fire, until the 
complete breaking up of the soft parts. In tliis very inexpensive method, 
which will likely find more practice in the future, is obtained fat, glue 
broth, and alkaline albumen. A saponification of the fat does not take 
place. 

(d) The dry distillation of the meat is practically not used as a dis- 
posing method. 

(e) A burning of small parts may be undertaken at any place in the 
heating arrangements of the household, and is without a doubt the safest 
method of disposition. Where steam boilers are present even larger 
parts and divided carcasses of large animals may be burned. This, how- 
ever, is not economical, and is also of a disadvantage for the walls of the 
boiler. To eliminate the last-mentioned disadvantage, various kinds of 
burning stoves were constructed, of which those of Kori (page 179) prove 
to be the best. 

The illustration. Fig. 74, represents the latest construction of Kori's burning 
stove, type III, with an upper slime basin. The burning stove consists of a mas- 
sively built wall body, the surfaces of which, coming in contact with the smoke 
gases and fire, are constructed of the best fire bricks, while the other wall work 
consists of brick stones. Besides every stove receives a reinforcement of strong 
iron U-rails, which are fastened together by strong round irons, both long and 
crosswise. The operation is carried out in the following way: 

The solid offal, condemned meats, etc., are thrown without consideration of 
their kind, through the opening E T, into the burning chamber V R, and thence to 



Disposition of the Condemned Meat 



179 



the cast-iron basin Sch. B II, and from here on the slanting surface of the arching 
G I, G II. The latter consists of specially constructed perforated fire bricks, which 
are horizontally continued G III. The coal flame produced in the so-called main 
fire-box H F reaches in the greatest part directly to the burning chamber V R, 
and consumes the products which are accumulated there, while a small part reaches 
through the canal K, directly under the perforated arching G II, drying and igniting 
the offal lying on it. 

In order to make possible the burning in the chamber V R of pulpy and thin 
liquid material without any other addition, and without disturbing the burning 
process proper, the stove is extended in its upper part into another small chamber 
O V R, into which a flat but broad basin Sch. BI is built. This basin can be 




Fig. 74. Longitudinal section through one of Kori's burning ovens, type III 



reached from the opening E I, lying on the opposite side to the opening for receiv- 
ing the materials, and in order to make this accessible, the otherwise sloped back 
of the stove is made with a platform extension. 

The flame from the main place which fills the burning chamber V R, leaves 
this through the side draft-opening Z II, and reaches the upper burning chamber 
O V R, in which it passes over the basin Sch. BI, and evaporates the fluids con- 
tained therein, thus thickening them. If this is (in about 5 hours) sufficiently 
accomplished, then with the hoisting of the conical valve K V (in the floor of the 
basin B), the thickened content flows down or is pushed down into the lower burn- 
ing chamber V R, where its complete destruction is accomplished in a short time. 



i8o Chap. VI. Decisions of the Veterinary Inspectors, etc. 

The residues remaining in the chamber V R are drawn down at the conckision 
of the work, with the aid of a fire hook, to the grading of the main firing, where the 
complete destruction to a gray ash takes place. When the burning process is well 
in progress it is advisable to restrict the direct firing, as the meat masses falling 
from time to time into the fire replace the burning material. 

Where it is accessible, the burning stove is connected with the smokestack of 
the steam boiler. The burning stoves of Kori give good satisfaction everywhere, 
and work very inexpensively. 

(f) The burying- of meat is followed principally in flat countries, 
after the meat has been previously denatured (page 170). The ditch 
should be laid out so that the surface of the meat may be covered with a 
layer of earth of at least i m. thickness. According to the regulations of 
the imperial meat-inspection law, trichinous meat is not allowed to be dis- 
posed of by burying. 

[Condemned carcasses or parts, as well as condemned meat and its 
products, and the offals of the abattoir are rendered in the United States 
in tanks, also called digesters. Such tanks are usually installed in abat- 
toirs, and in the larger establishments a large number of such tanks are 
placed in the so-called tank-house or tank-room. The tanks, which receive 
the condemned meat, are sealed by a Federal employee, who also super- 
vises the tanking of the condemned material. After the process of ren- 
dering is concluded, the seal is broken by the Federal employee and the 
contents of the tank are also removed under his supervision (see B. A. I. 
Order 150, Regulation 16, sections 1-3). In the rendering process the 
regulations prescribe a 40-lb. steam pressure, producing a temperature of 
288° F., which should be maintained for not less than six hours. Before 
tanking the meat is always denatured. Through the rendering process all 
of the solids are thoroughly disintegrated, forming a pulpy mass. The 
grease is then drawn off through a conveniently placed draw-off valve, 
and the product is stored and shipped with the word "inedible'' marked on 
the containers. After the fat is drawn oft', the residue of the tank is 
dumped into a scrap vat in which it is allowed to settle, and the grease is 
next skimmed off. which is placed again into the tank for the next cook- 
ing. Then the residue is placed in a press, usually a -hydraulic press being- 
employed, where it is separated from all the moisture and grease, the 
dry substance being then prepared for fertilizers. In various places the 
tank water, which contains from 10-15 P^'' cent, solids, is utilized for the 
preparation of ammonia. The entire rendering process in the tanks 
requires from 8-10 hours.] 

3, Inspection of Meat Imported from Foreign Countries 

The decisions of the inspectors, and the treatment of the meat 
imported from foreign countries after inspection, is accomplished in 
accordance with the regulations of the imperial meat-inspection law. 



Disposition of the Condemned Meat i8i 

The decision may be one of the following : 

(a) Passed and admitted for traffic in the state; 

(b) Condemned and rejected from importation; 

(c) Condemned with" harmless disposal ; 

(d) Condemned and admitted after rendering it useless. 

These decisions may extend in accordance with the conditions in fresh 
meat, to the entire shipment, to single carcasses, to single affected parts ; 
and in prepared meat, to the entire shipment, to single packages, or to 
single pieces of meat. 

All final decisions are made by the inspection office in accordance 
with the opinion of the veterinarian assigned for the inspection to whom 
theyesults of the chemical examinations, if such were necessary, should 
be reported in writing. 

Regarding the further treatment of condemned meat, the police 
authorities have control. 

The marking of the meat (page 159) is carried out in accordance 
with the regulations, with colored or branding stamps on the meat proper, 
and on the containers of the same. 

In condemnations the meat should be temporarily retained, and pro- 
vided with a suitable identification mark. Of the retention immediate 
notice should be given to the disposal authorities of the customs and tax 
office, as well as to the police authorities designating the cause of the 
condemnation. 

The harmless disposal of condemned imported meat has to be carried 
out under the same conditions as for native meat. 

For rendering useless foreign meat which is not permitted for con- 
sumption, the regulations give the necessary orders. 

Prohibition for importation to Germany applies at the present time to dog 
meat, prepared horse meat, sausages, and other mixtures from comminuted horse 
meat, meat in air-tight, closed boxes, or similar containers ; pickled meat, if the 
weight of a single piece is less than 4 kg. ; fresh beef and veal from Belgium, Russia, 
Roumania, Servia, Bulgaria, America; and fresh mutton, goat meat and pork from 
Russia, Roumania, Servia, and Bulgaria. 



VIL Abnormal Conditions and Diseases of 
Food^producing Animals 

1, Noteworthy Peculiarities Within Physiological Limits 

A. Fetuses and Dead/born Animals 

Unscrupulous butchers sometimes attempt to place on the market as 
normal veal or to otherwise work up the meat of almost mature fetuses 
or dead-born animals. If this meat is worked into various preparations it 
can only be found out, as a rule, b}' obtaining- trustworthy information, 
and is very difficult to recognize in meat products. At best, the high 
glycogen content (see page 38) of meat mixtures might furnish a 
suspicion, as fetal meat contains, relativel}-, a large amount of this carbo- 
hydrate. 

Post-mortem E.vaiiiiiiatiou. — The undressed carcass of a calf fetus 
presents the following : Soft claws with untouched convex sole-pads ; 
remains of the umbilical cord hanging from the open navel ring ; umbilical 
vessels open, containing fluid blood ; sometimes the throat is cut or is so 
stuck as to simulate slaughter by bleeding, but the edges of the wound are 
not infiltrated by blood. The dressed carcass shows the following: 

Gaping condition of the umbilical vessels, in which the points of ori- 
gin of the arteries from the internal pudenda artery should be especially 
noticed ; open urachus ; stomach and intestines free of coagulated milk ; 
absence of milk feces ; lungs atelectatic if they were not blown up by the 
butcher; muscles loose, flabby, and watery; so, likewise, is the undevel- 
oped fat tissue, especially around the kidneys, which is jelly-like; bone- 
marrow is red. 

Judgment. — As the consumption of fetal meat would awaken a feel- 
ing of repulsion in most cases, such meat should be considered as unfit 
for human food. [B. A. I. Order 150, Regulation 13, section 27.] 

B, Immature Animals 

Only calves which are too young come into consideration here, as 
young pigs, lambs, and kids are consumed when only a few days old. 
Calves are considered mature or mature for slaughter when the meat 
and fat have attained a certain development, which, as a rule, is only 
reached within 8 to 10 days after birth. However, the requirements of 
182 



Emaciated Animals 183 

the public relative to this vary greatly. In North Germany, especially in 
Mecklenburg and Holstein, calves are frequently slaughtered as so-called 
"fasting calves" when only 3 or 4 days old, and even shortly after birth ; 
but they are allowed to become much older in South Germany, being gen- 
erally 2 to 3 weeks old. Young pigs (roasting pigs), lambs (Easter 
lambs) and kids are considered mature for slaughter at an age of about 
3 or 4 weeks. 

Symptoms and Lesions. — The meat of immature calves is very moist, 
loose, tender, and tears easily ; can be perforated with the fingers, and is 
grayish-red. The muscular development, as a whole, is but slight, which 
can be especially noticed on the leg (upper shank). The tissue, which 
lat^r develops as the fat capsule of the kidneys, is edematous, dirty yel- 
low, or grayish-red, tough, and intermixed with some fat lobules. For 
characteristic signs of the age, see page 16. 

Judgment. — According to the German meat-inspection regulations 
immature or insufficiently developed calves should be declared of inferior 
quality. 

The same practice should be followed with the immature meat of 
other animals. 

[In the United States the regulations provide that calves, pigs, kids, 
and lambs under three weeks of age should be condemned. [See B. A. I. 
Order 150, Regulation 13. section 27.] 

C, Emaciated Animals 

The meaning of emaciation must not be confused with the designa- 
tion leanness. 

Leanness is a physiological condition with perfect health of the indi- 
vidual, and which after slaughter shows no disease, or only insignificant 
indications of diseased changes. Leanness can be observed in all ani- 
mals which are in the stage of development ; in most of the male breeding 
animals, in cows which are in a period of strong lactation, and in poorly 
nourished animals, or in those not properly taken care of. 

The meat of lean animals contains a small amount of fat, but is 
otherwise firm, tense, and as a rule, darker in color than normal, and 
sometimes the connective tissue appears strongly developed, which causes 
toughness of the meat. 

Emaciation is always the result of disease or old age, and is charac- 
terized by a retrogression of the general nutritive condition below the 
normal. In well-marked cases, and when associated with a pronounced 
loss of strength, it is designated as cachexia. Emaciation may develop 
especially fast in febrile diseases. Occasionally anemic and hydremic 
conditions are associated with emaciation. 



184 Chap. VII. Abnormal Conditions and Diseases, etc. 

Symptoms and Lesions. — On living animals are noted marked projec- 
tions of prominent portions of the bones, sunken muscles, flabby skin 
without elasticity and laid in folds with much desquamation, scrubby, 
dull hair, tired look from sunken eyes, and decided weakness when in 
motion, with relaxed muscles while standing. 

Of the slaughtered animals, the most striking appearance is shown 
in emaciated hogs, as these animals are generally slaughtered in a fattened 
condition, with the exception of boars and brood sows, unless the slaugh- 
ter is necessitated by disease. In general, in all emaciated animals, 
absence of fat in the subcutis is noted in the first place, which is shrunken 
away here as in all other places of fat deposit, and is replaced by a loose 
yellowish or reddish, more moist and even jelly-like tissue. Advanced 
changes are naturally dependent upon more severe cases, which are espe- 
cially distinguished by pronounced changes of the kidney fat. The mus- 
cular tissues are atrophied, sunken, loose, pale, more moist and very rich 
in connective tissue elements. Lymph glands and lymphoid tissue are 
frequently very prominent in young individuals, while the same may be 
atrophied in older subjects. Bone-marrow is, in advanced cases, poor 
in fat, red, watery; or, in older animals, even slimy. Sometimes also, 
signs of atrophy of the liver and spleen are noted. 

The judging of the meat of emaciated animals depends on the cause 
of emaciation and upon its degree. In marked substantial changes of the 
meat, or if complete emaciation is the result of disease, the meat must 
be considered, according to the regulations, as unfit for human con- 
sumption. The same applies to all cases in which the existing original 
disease would in itself exclude utilization of the meat. In all other cases, 
the meat represents a food of inferior value, according to the regulations. 

[According to B. A. I. Order 150, Regulation 13, section 24, carcasses 
which show advanced emaciation should be condemned ; the association 
of the emaciation with a disease condition would naturally exclude the 
carcass for food purposes.] 

D, Abnormal Odor and Taste of Meat 

1. Sexual Peculiarities 

Odor and taste abnormalities of meat, which appear in connection 
with sexual activity, manifest themselves in the most pronounced form 
in boars and billy-goats, and next in order, in cryptorchid boars. 

Findings. — In old boars immediately after slaughter there is always 
perceived a specific odor of the meat, which reminds one of the odor of 
living boars, and which is designated as a urine-like or sexual odor. 
Although this gradually diminishes through cooling the meat, it becomes 
again prominently noticeable as soon as the meat is warmed by boiling 
or roasting. 



Abnormal Odor and Taste of Meat 185 

Therefore it is necessary to undertake a boiling test (page 137) with the meat 
of every boar 24 hours after slaughter. The odor is most perceptible when the 
boiled meat begins to cool. In doubtful cases the odor test should be made by sev- 
eral persons. The characteristic repulsive odor is also accompanied by a simi- 
lar taste. 

Besides the disagreeable odor and taste, the meat of boars possesses 
also a peculiar toughness, and the skin of the back, shoulders, neck, and 
chest-walls is of a cartilaginous hardness (Schild). 

As the boar odor is retained for some time after castration, such 
recently castrated animals have to be judged the same as those not cas- 
trated. (Careful attention should be given to so-called stags). 

In larger abattoirs where the ante-mortem and post-mortem inspection is seldom 
carried out by the same person, it is advisable to practice care in meat inspection, for 
the butchers, as a rule, remove the testicles with a portion of the scrotum in dress- 
ing the animal. In such cases the cutting away of the skin on the inside of the 
thigh is conspicuous, which, in connection with other sexual peculiarities (thickness 
of the skin, penis, or its roots at the notch of the pubis, and the marked development 
of the bulbo-cavernosus muscle), must excite suspicion. 

In meat of cryptorchid boars the sexual odor is almost invariably 
present should the retained testicles possess functional activity. At any 
rate it is advisable to condem temporarily every cryptorchid boar, in 
order to undertake a boiling test with the cooled meat. 

Meat of billy-goats has a very pronounced, disagreeable goatish 
odor and taste, reminding one of the odor of the living animal. The 
boiling test with the cooled meat is decisive. 

Meat of specially strong full-fleshed bulls may, according to Goltz, 
develop an exceptionally noticeable odor, which is similar to evaporation 
from the skin of these animals in life, and which also manifests itself 
after boiling. 

Before being chilled the meat of rams has frequently a slight peculiar 
odor which is quite noticeable, but it cannot be designated as repulsive. 
For judgment of such meat, see under 3. 

2. Influences of Feeding 

As a result of extensive feeding with fish, which sometimes occurs 
near the sea coasts, the meat, and especially the fat of hogs, obtains a 
fishy odor and taste. Extensive feeding of garbage (food remnants and 
offal from hotels, institutions, etc.) gives meat an insipid, rancid odor and 
taste, and besides changes the consistence of the meat and fat. 

After feeding fenugreek, meat, according to observations made in 
France, takes up an odor and taste which resembles that of hog manure, 
and which may also be manifested in calves given milk from cows fed 
with this plant. 



i86 Chap. VII. Abnormal Conditions and Diseases, etc. 

Oilman observed a rancid odor and a soapy taste of the meat in 
lambs which were fed with beets in which fermentation had begun to 
develop. 

The flesh of poultry obtains an oily flavor from being fattened with 
oil seed, oil cake, colza, or hempseed ; and a fishy odor and taste from 
feeding with fish. Turnips are supposed to produce a bitter taste, and 
pond mussels also cause a very disagreeable flavor to the meat of ducks. 

All these odor and taste abnormalities produced by the influence of 
food are, as a rule, only perceivable after heating the meat. For judg- 
ment of the meat, see under 3. 

3. Absorption of Odors 

The ingestion and administration of odor-producing substances in the 
body of animals may also cause an abnormal odor and flavor to the meat. 
These, however, are not always strictly inside the physiological borders, 
but they may be here mentioned. Of such substances which may be taken 
up accidentally, or which may be administered as medicines, and especially 
come into consideration in emergency slaughter, to which attention should 
be called, are : Ether, anise, asafoetida, baldrian, bezin, camphor, carbolic 
acid, chloroform, petroleum, tar, and fennel. 

It is especially noteworthy that through the inhalations of carbolic 
acid, chlorine, ether, and chloroform vapors by animals their meat will 
also absorb the corresponding odor and taste abnormalities. (This may 
occur from stable and railroad stock-car disinfection.) 

These odors may manifest themselves to a high degree in freshly 
slaughtered animals, but they appear most distinct after boiling or roast- 
ing the meat. 

Judgment. — J\Ieat which possesses a repulsive odor or flavor in a high 
degree is, according to the regulations, unfit for human food ; that having 
a fishy odor or taste, and all such meats which possess deviations of these 
peculiarities to a moderate degree, should be declared of an inferior qual- 
ity. [According to B. A. I. Order 150, Regulation 13, section 20, car- 
casses giving off urine or sexual odors should be condemned.] 

Regarding deviations in the odor and taste of meat of diseased ani- 
mals, and those with intestinal parasites, see Chap. Yll, Sections 3-7. 
Regarding post-mortem odor abnormalities, see Chap. VIII. 

E, Animals in Advanced Pregnancy 

The almost general opinion which exists among butchers that meat of 
animals in advanced pregnancy is of inferior quality because it contains 
more moisture, has a looser consistence, and therefore does not keep so 
well, and is not as suitable for the preparation of sausage, requiring keep- 



Abnormal Color of the Fat 187 

ing- qualities, cannot be in general substantiated. Although there are 
cases occuring- in which the meat, and especially of the hindquarters, pos- 
sesses the above-mentioned peculiarities, yet these are restricted princi- 
pally to sows in the last "stage of pregnancy. 

The jitdginen\t can, therefore, be applied only from case to case, and 
has to be directed in accordance with carefully observed objective finding 
on the animal itself. 

[In accordance with Regulation 13, section 26 of B. A. I. Order 150, 
carcasses of animals in the last stages of pregnancy (showing signs of 
parturition), also those which have given birth to young within 10 days 
are passed for lard or tallow, provided there are no signs of sep- 
ti& infection.] 

If in the purchase absence of pregnancy was agreed upon, then the buyer is 
entitled to have indemnification claims on the seller. For this purpose, an author- 
ized certification of the meat inspector is required, specifying the exact weight of 
the pregnant uterus, and to deduct from the same the weight of a normal uterus, 
which, in the average, can be calculated in cattle as lyi kg.; in hogs, 0.75 kg., and 
in sheep, 60 g. 

F, Abnormal Color of the Fat 

An intense yellow coloring of the fat appears in old cows as a sign 
of advanced age. Likewise a change in color of fat occurs, as a rule, 
through certain influences of feeding. Thus cattle which were princi- 
pally fattened on the pasture possess an intensely yellow fat. Also in hogs 
which were extensively fed on corn or cotton-seed meal may be observed 
a milder yellow coloration of the fat. A more saturated, dirty yellow 
color is observed in the fat of calves which were nourished on cotton-seed 
meal or acorn cake. If hogs are fed on fish or garbage the fat manifests 
a blackish-gray or grayish-yellow coloration. 

According to Porcher, the yellow coloration resulting from feeding is 
dependent upon a pigment, which belongs to the group of "lutein," and 
which is distinguishable from bilirubin through the sum total of its 
characteristics. 

Lutein is soluble in chloroform, amylalcohol, common alcohol, benzin, turpentine 
and ether; bilirubin on the other hand, is soluble only in the two first named sub- 
stances. Lutein has two absorption stripes (green-blue, and blue) ; bilirubin has 
none. Solutions of bilirubin in CHCI3, shaken with a small quantity of soda 
solution, lose the pigment rapidly, while the lutein does not. Lutein solutions 
exposed to the air are soon discolored in contradistinction to that of bilirubin; and 
lutein solutions do not give the Ehrlich reaction. 

Judgment. — Meat and fat of so-called pasture or grass-fed cattle 
should not be condemned. The same applies to calves, with the above- 
mentioned yellow coloration of fat. Otherwise, moderate deviations rela- 



1 88 Chap. VII. Abnormal Conditions and Diseases, etc. 

tive to color, render the meat of a lesser quality. In more marked changes 
of color the meat, as a rule, shows also abnormalities of odor and taste, 
and should be judged according to the provisions of the regulations. To 
mistake the above discolorations for jaundice cannot occur to a careful 
inspector, as in the yellow coloration resulting from feeding the fat only 
shows the yellow color, while in icteric animals all connective tissue sub- 
stances and particularly the serous membranes, manifest a yellow colora- 
tion. Relative to fvirther influences on the meat of hogs from feeding 
upon fish and garbage, see page 185. 

[Carcasses showing an intense yellow or greenish-yellow discolora- 
tion after proper cooling should be condemned. (B. A. I. Order 150, 
Regulation 13, section 19.)] 

G, Incompletely Bled Animals 

Since in the slaughtering of animals it is aimed to abstract from the 
body as much blood as possible, insufficient bleeding is always somewhat 
unusual and conspicuous. 

Lesions. — There is observed an unusual blood content of the viscera, 
especially of the liver and intestinal veins, marked fullness of the ventricles 
of the heart, the subcutaneous veins and those of the muscles, which also 
contain more moisture. The spongy parts of the bones are richer in blood, 
as is also the bone-marrow under certain conditions. In accordance with 
the degree of bleeding, the increased blood content is more or less marked. 

In judginent it is first of all necessary to decide the cause of insuffi- 
cient bleeding. If it was the result of disease, then the nature of the dis- 
ease is the standard for decision. 

If insufficient bleeding results as a consequence of long transporta- 
tion, overexertion, overfeeding, heart stroke, lightning stroke violent brain 
or spinal-cord injuries, sudden internal bleedings, etc., the meat is, as a 
rule, to be declared of inferior quality. But there may also be changes 
present which render the meat entirely unfit for use. 

[Carcasses which show indications of incomplete bleeding, which is 
invariably an evidence of a serious condition of the animal before slaugh- 
ter, should be condemned.] 

H. Exhausted Animals 

Although meat of exhausted animals will most frequently have to be judged in 
accordance with the paragraph above because of insufficient bleeding, still there are 
instances in which the meat will contain some other peculiarities, as a result of 
exhaustion. According to Ficker, the exhaustion of animals facilitates considerably 



Dead Animals 189 

the penetration of bacteria through the intestinal walls. Bacillus coli was demon- 
strated in the kidneys, liver, and mesenteric glands of exhausted dogs, and B. proteus 
in the liver. It produces a similar condition as in the dying animal. This also 
explains the fact that meat of exhausted food animals spoils soon after slaughter, 
while it will keep well if animals are rested for several days before being put to 
death. 

Lesions. — The color of the meat is, according to Villain, brown or dark red, fre- 
quently even blackish ; the odor is repulsive, slightly sour, sometimes similar to ether ; 
the muscle-fibers are dry in cutting; no muscle juice oozes out, and the meat cuts like 
rubber; hemorrhages and ruptures occur in the muscle-fiber; the spongy part of the 
bones is dark, the bone-marrow hemorrhagic, and the lymph glands injected. 
Finally the muscles are supposed to contain 10 times the quantity of kreatin, as in 
their normal condition. 

Judgment. — As a rule, the meat of exhausted animals is unfit for human food, 
on account of the pronounced repulsive changes. 

L Dead Animals 

It sometimes happens that animals are slaughtered after they have 
died, and that manipulations are undertaken on dead animals to give the 
appearances of slaughter ("cold slaughter"). Accordingly the mea;t of 
dead animals sometimes appears also for inspection. 

Lesions. — Absence of signs of a regular slaughter ; complete fulness 
of all the venous vessels, especially noticeable in the liver, intestines, and 
subcutis ; a varied content of blood in the lungs and kidneys (hypostasis) ; 
marked fluid content of the subcutis and muscles. 

Judgment. — The meat of dead animals is, according to the regula- 
tions, unfit for human food. 

Whether such meat is objectively unwholesome depends on the cause 
(disease, accident) which resulted in the death of the animal. Further- 
more, meat of dead animals undergoes putrefactive changes very soon 
(see under H), and as a result may be rendered unwholesome. 

The meat of animals which nearly die from injury, stroke of light- 
ning, cardiac, or cerebral apoplexy, suffocation, and from other causes 
may, in such cases^ receive a more liberal decision if some blood could 
be extracted from the body and the dressing were hastily performed (see 
above under G). 

[According to B. A. L Order 150, Regulation 13, sections 29 and 30, 
animals which die in the abattoirs and those in a dying condition should 
be condemned ; the same provision is made for suffocated animals. 
Besides the regulations also specify that the carcasses of such animals, 
when conveyed to the tank-room, should not pass through the compart- 
ments in which food products are prepared.] 



IQO Chap. VII. Abnormal Conditions and Diseases, etc. 

2, General Pathological Changes as Related to Meat 

Inspection 

A< Disturbances of the Cifculation 

1, Hyperemia 

An increased quantity of blood in various parts of the animal body- 
may occur as functional, active, passive, collateral and inflammatory 
hyperemia, the recognition of which causes no difficulty. However, it 
should be considered that all changes in organs caused by the quantity of 
blood in them become, with rare exceptions (local active hyperemia), 
more or less indistinct after the bleeding of slaughtered animals ; on the 
other hand, after natural death or insufficient bleeding, hyperemia is so 
pronounced it may serve as a sign for recognition of these last-named 
conditions. For judgment, see page 192. 

Hyperemia should not be confused with hemorrhagic imbibitions, which do 
not represent an engorgement of blood-vessels, but consist of a red coloration of 
tissues by the blood-coloring matter, dissolved by blood serum (see septicemia and 
putrefaction). 

Post-mortem Spots (cadaver spots, livid areas, post-mortem hypostasis), 
are blue discolorations of the skin of dead animals, which result from the tendency 
of blood after death \o sink to the dependent tissues, and finally filling the capillaries. 

2, Anemia 

This condition, which is characterized by a local deficiency of blood 
(ischemia) in the respective parts, can also be readily detected ; and in 
this connection, the influence of stronger or lesser bleeding should always 
be taken under consideration. For disposition of such carcasses, see 
page 192. 

Regarding general anemia, see Chap. VII, 4. 

3, Hemorrhages 

In the occurrence of hemorrhages, it is necessary to distinguish 
between the escape of blood into the tissues due to tearing of the heart 
muscle or the walls of the blood-vessels [hemorrhages by rupture (per 
rhexis) resulting from traumatisms, greatly increased blood-pressure or 
nutritive disturbances of the walls of the blood-vessels], and between 
hemorrhages without any separation of the continuity of the blood-vessel, 
from which blood corpuscles and serum escape by diapedesis, through 
dilated pores of the walls of the vessels. In the first instance, larger hem- 



Disturbances of the Circulation 191 

orrhages and blood effusions are produced (extravasations, sugillations, 
hemorrhagic areas, infarcts, hematomas) ; in the last instance punctiform, 
circumscribed hemorrhages are found (petechia and ecchymosis). 

The consistency of the hemorrhages is not affected by the animal 
beinsf bled to death. 




Fig. 75. A, cells containing amorphous blood pigment; a, with a few larger 
broken down products ; b, and c, with numerous small degenerated products of red 
blood corpuscles B, rhomboid crystals and needles of hematoidin. x 300 diame- 
ters (after Ziegler). 

For determination of the time of the occurrence of hemorrhages, Driick's publi- 
cations give the following information : 

First the red blood corpuscles swell and commence to clear. As a result of the 
latter they are distinguished after two days by the appearance of paleness, becom- 
ing almost completely transparent; while as a result of the swelling, the bi-concave 
blood plates gradually adopt a round form. From the fifth day, shrinking takes 



© 






• /^ *r^ "S3* ^ e ^ 



"i ""^ § 






m> 



h §) 



Fig. y6. Cells containing hemosiderin and hematoidin from an old hemorrhagic 
area in the brain (alk. Berlin blue reaction) ; a, cells with hemosiderin; b, cells with 
hematoidin; c, fat granule cells which became cleared; d, new formed connective 
tissue. X 300 diameters (after Ziegler). 

place, with formation of very fine crenations on the periphery of the blood corpus- 
cles. The increased shrinking changes the blood corpuscles up to the 6th to 8th 
day into either irregular polygonal or star-shaped formations, or into key or cup- 
shaped bodies. The hemoglobin penetrates the surrounding tissues uniformly, until 



192 Chap. VII. Abnormal Conditions and Diseases, etc. 

the 6th day, to which it confers a brownish tint. At the seventh day hemosiderin 
(Fig. "jii) develops, which contains iron, and soon diffuses through the entire tissue. 
However, from the 12th day on it is exclusiveh' found in the contracted cells. 
From tlie 12th day on the pigment which is at first in sohition in the white blood 
corpuscles becomes granular; and from the i8th to the 25th day 't gradually breaks 
up into finer and finer granules. At the same time the white corpuscles containing 
granules also break up ; so that from the iSth day the first free pigment-granules 
may be noticed in the tissues. In the latter, about the 60th day, there is a very fine 
granular pigment exclusively present, which is free of iron. Besides, under certain 
but entirely unknown conditions, coloring matter crystals may form (hematoidin, 
a derivative of hemoglobin, containing iron. Fig. 75). 
For judgment, see under 5. 

4, Transudations 

The increased escape of fluid constitttents of the blood through the 
uninjured walls of the vessels, which results inside of the tissue in edema 
(anasarca, hyposarca) and in the body cavities in efftisions, is either the 
result of changes of the blood (hydremia) or of disturbances of circula- 
tion, the recognition of which is very difficult, although the causes are 
quite significant. While edemas are, as a rule, not changed by slaughter, 
observation of suspected transudation in the large body cavities requires 
the personal presence of the inspector at the opening of the carcass. 

For judgment, see luider 5. 

5, Thrombosis and Embolism 

Obstructions of blood vessels, as a rule, are recognized in meat 
inspection only when the obstruction affects large blood vessels; or 
thrombosis is present in such organs in which a hemorrhagic infarct 
develops. The infarct usually possesses a wedge-shaped cross-section, 
and is chiefiv conspicuous by its dark red color, which gradually turns to 
? dim grav anil dull yellow. Hemorrhagic infarcts are principally found 
in organs with terminal arteries (spleen, kidneys, brain, retina), but also 
in the lungs. If the region of the obstructing blood-vessels does not pos- 
sess anastamosis with other vessels from which it may receive blood, that 
region remains free of blood, and dies oft'. It will develop an anemic, 
pale infarct, which may be principally observed in the heart, spleen, and 
kidneys. Later on it results in connective tissue degeneration, and cica- 
trizatiou of the region cut off from the arterial blood supply. 

In the judgment of meat which comes under 1-5 of the above- 
described local circulatory disturbances, the extent and cause of condi- 
tions must be considered, and whether these changes are purely local and 
appearing independently, or whether they are the accompanying manifes- 
tations of a general aft"ection. 



Inflammations 193 

In purely local changes, as a rule, only the diseased part of the body, 
or the entire affected organ is condemned as unfit for human food on 
account of its altered consistency. 

When circulatory disturbances are manifested in numerous parts of 
the body 't is usually indicative of a general affection and should be 
judged accordingly, but when the circulatory disturbances are not sympto- 
matic of a generally diseased condition and yet appear extensively 
throughout the body, their significance should be considered under Organic 
Diseases (page 201). 

6« Inflammations 

For the purposes of meat inspection it appears most appropriate to 
consider various inflammations in accordance with the character of their 
exudates. Accordingly the following fcjrms are distinguished : 

1. Serous and catarrhal inflammation. 

2. Fibrinous inflammation. 

3. Suppurative and ulcerative inflammation. 

4. Hemorrhagic inflammation. 

5. Croupous inflammation. 

6. Diphtheritic inflammation. 

7. Gangrenous inflammation. 

8. Productive inflammation. 

There also belong the variously related and mixed forms (sero-fibrinous inflam- 
mation, croupous-diphtheritic inflammation, etc.) ; also the parenchymatous and 
interstitial inflammations of glandular organs, which, from a practical standpoint, 
it is advisable to keep apart. 

Regarding lesions found in various forms of inflammations, nothing need be 
said here, as their manifestations should be familiar to every one who has studied 
pathology. For the same reason the cause of inflammations will not be treated here. 

In judging the meat of affected carcasses it is necessary to separate 
the purely local forms of inflammation from those which appear as accom- 
panying symptoms of general disease. The purely local forms of inflam- 
mations are frequently the results of traiunatic lesions and are more or 
less confined to certain areas ; accordingly only the inflamed parts, or at 
most the affected organ, should be condemned as unfit for human food on 
account of conspicuous changes. This is frequently unnecessary in 
serous and catarrhal inflammations of the mucous membranes, as the dis- 
eased organs are either not used in any form for human food, or in further 
manipulations of them (intestines, air-passages, urinary and sexual pas- 
sages) the diseased mucous membranes are removed. That local inflam- 
mations may be the starting point of infectious processes is known ; and 
therefore when suspicious of such cases, it is advisable to be careful in 
making disposition of the meat. 
14 



194 Chap. VII. Abnormal Conditions and Diseases, etc. 

Those general affections which manifest accompanying symptoms of 
inflammation are usually of an infectious nature (principally the more 
severe hemorrhagic, croupous, diphtheritic, and parenchymatous inflam- 
mations). The judgment of such carcasses depends on the original disease 
present. 

C, Retrogressive Nutritive Disturbances and Infiltration of the Tissues 

1, Atrophy 

In meat inspection the condition known as atrophy is not of special 
importance, and comes only into consideration when fat, muscular tissues 
and certain glands, especially the liver, are affected. While the atrophy of 
the glandular organs is easily recognized by the decrease in size and the 
firmer consistency nevertheless the atrophy of the muscles and of the fat 
tissues is, as a rule, only noticed in an advanced state. As a result of 
atrophy of parenchyma cells, the connective tissue elements stand oui more 
prominently in the atrophied organ ; and this condition is sometimes 
wrongly considered as an increase of connective tissue (induration). 

For judgment, see page 199. 

2, Cloudy Swelling 

Cloudy swelling (parenchymatous degeneration, granular infiltra- 
tion) is of the highest diagnostic importance in meat inspection. It occurs 
in large glandular organs and in muscles, and is characterized by a slight 
enlargement of the organ, with a cloudy, dull, lusterless appearance, espe- 
cially of the cut surface, together with the projection and diffused appear- 
ance of the latter. The normal color is changed into grayish color tints, 
the lightness of which corresponds with the severity of the changes. The 
consistence of the organ is friable, which as a result of 
a diminution in blood and moisture may increase to 
^ *s. a brittleness. In a pronounced case the organs ap- 

I pear as if they were boiled. 

Cloudy swelling is to be considered as a disorgani- 
zation of the protoplasm, which ensues under the ab- 
swelHne^ of l^er sorption of fluids, and leads to a partial separation of 
cells as a result a the solid and fluid parts (Ziegler). 
diameters* (a^ft^er Microscopical examination reveals an accumula- 

Ziegler). tion of fine, slightly refractory granules in the proto- 

plasma of the swollen cells, the connection of which 
appears also somewhat loosened. The albuminous granules, which are 
insoluble in alkalies and ether, but are soluble in acetic acid, cause the cells 
to have a cloudy appearance, as if they had been covered with dust 



Retrogressive Nutritive Disturbances, etc. 195 

(Fig. 'j'j^. The nucleus may also be swollen and its structure degenerated. 

Cloudy swelling is frequently the precursor of degeneration (see 
below). 

For judgment, see page 199. 

3, Fatty Infiltration 

Fatty infiltration, which frequently occurs in various organs of fat- 
tened food animals, does not represent in meat inspection an abnormal 
condition, and is here only mentioned in contradistinction to fatty degen- 
eration, which is described below. 

*By physiological infiltration is understood a deposit of fat globules 
in the cells, the normal structure of which remains otherwise intact. The 
fat enters the cells, according to Rievel in dissolved form, is split up, and 
is then again synthetically built up within the cells (granular fat synthesis 
of Arnold). This condition appears principally in those tissues which nor- 
mally serve for storing fat (connective tissue). 

It also occurs to a great extent in primitive muscular fibers, in various 
epithelial cells, and especially in liver cells. To this form of infiltration 
belongs the so-called fatty liver in highly fattened animals, in advanced 
pregnancy, in sucking animals, and in diseased conditions where there is 
an insufficient oxidation of blood. 

Fatty liver is characterized by its lighter yellowish-brown color, 
slight swelling, rounded edges, cloudiness, fatty luster of the cut surface, 
but with no structural abnormalities (the lobules are not obliterated). The 
consistence is soft. Microscopically, there is found a rich accumulation 
of fat in the interlobular tissue, and the swollen fat globules have a ten- 
dency to run together, to form large droplets in the cell protoplasm 
(Fig. 78 a, b). 

For judgment, see page 199. 

4, Fatty Degeneration 

Fatty degeneration, which, according to Rievel, would be more cor- 
rectly designated as pathological or degenerative fatty infiltration, repre- 
sents occasionally an advanced development of cloudy swelling; but it 
may also occur without this preliminary process. It affects both epithelial 
cells (liver and kidney), connective tissue substances (heart and skeleton 
muscles, connective tissue fibers), and consists in an accumulation of fat 
in the cells, the structure of which is more or less injured. Fat, however, 



196 



Chap. VII. Abnormal Conditions and Diseases, etc. 



does not originate from breaking up of the cell albumen, as it was for- 
merly supposed ; but it is conveyed as such to the cells. The entire pro- 
cedure might be traced to respiratory causes. 

Fatty degenerated organs are characterized by a yellowish color, 
which may be uniform or. spotted, with slight fatty luster of the cut sur- 
face, obliterated structural relations, and flabby, doughy consistence. A 
swelling of organs in the majority of cases does not take place. Micro- 
scopically, there is found a disintegration of cell connections, and some- 
times crumbling and breaking down of the cell into a fatty detritus, which 




Fig. 78. Liver cells contain- 
ing fat; a and b, fatty infil- 
tration; c, d, e, fatty degener- 
ation; X 400 diameters (after 
Ziegler). 



fecf 



"^^s; 



>:f 



*1, >1' 






Fig. 79. Fatty degene- 
ration of the heart muscle. 
X 350 diameters (after 
Ziegler). 



consists of granules and fat globules (Figs. 78 and 79). The latter 
remain unchanged by the action of acetic acid ; while they are dissolved 
by ether and chloroform. 

For judgment see page 199. 

5, Various Degenerations 

Mucoid degeneration (mucin-metamorphosis) is rarely observed in food ani- 
mals. It affects fat tissues, which are transformed into a yellow transparent jelly- 
like mass (Ostertag). 

Hyaline or glassy degeneration of the muscles also occurs infrequently, and is 
always associated with severe general affections. It was observed by Frattner to 
affect the heart muscles in the malignant form of foot and mouth disease. 

Amyloid degenerations have been observed in various organs, especially 
in fowls. 

For judgment, see page 199. 



6, Necrosis, Caseation, Gangrene, 

The easily recognized necrosis or necrobiosis of the organs or tissues 
occurs principally as a local affection, and would accordingly be of little 



Retrogressive Nutritive Disturbances, etc. 



197 






importance in meat inspection if the necrotic parts did not readily become 
centers for colonization and multiplication of saprophitic and pathogenic 
micro-organisms. In such cases in the surrounding tissues of the necrotic 
parts an inflammation alwavs develops, and not infrequently in connec- 
tion with this a uniformly diseased 
condition follows in the aifectef! 
animal. 

Caseation is designated as necro- 
biotic coagulation necrosis, in which 
the broken-down tissue has a caseous 
appearance. Tuberculous change of 
th9»tissues is the typical form. In cel- 
lular tissue, caseation may be fre- 
quently observed between the cells as 
a "fibrinoid mass," or even as typical 
thready fibrin (Fig. 80). 

Gangrene, which results from ne- 
crosis as a result of breaking down 
of diseased tissues through the influ- 




Fig. 80. Tissue from a partially 
caseated tubercular focus witla bacilli 
(alk. fuchsin-aniline blue) ; a, granu- 
lar, a', cheesy masses; b, fibrous cel- 
lular tissue ; c, partly necrotic giant 
cells with bacilli ; d. bacilli in the 



ence of saprophytes, is characterized cellular tissue; e, bacilli in necrotic 
, . . ^ ' . tissue ; f, bacilli enclosed in cells, x 

by a softenmg of those tissues un- 200 diameters (after Ziegler). 
der the formation of gases, with an 

offensive odor. Therefore everything said about necrosis, and especially 
concerning the danger of a resulting uniform affection, also applies to 
gangrene ; as a matter of fact the development of putrid intoxications or 
spetic infections is quite frequent in connection with gangrene. (See 
Chap. VII, 6.) 

For judgment, see page 199. 



7, Suppuration 

While suppuration is a product of inflammation and as such has been 
already mentioned, it deserves special attention as a frequently occurring 
disintegration of tissues in food animals. 

Although suppuration may be produced by chemical substances 
(mercury, turpentine, petroleum, creolin, digitoxin, bacterial proteins), 
still, from a practical standpoint, all cases of suppuration must be con- 
sidered of infectious origin, occasioned by various pus-forming organisms 
(staphylococcus pyogenes aureus albus and citreus ; streptococcus pyog- 
enes ; str. equi ; bacillus pyogenes suis ; bac. pyogenes bovis ; bac. 



198 Chap. VII. Abnormal Conditions and Diseases, etc. 

pyogenes foetidus ; bac. liqtiifaciens bovis ; bac. pyelonephriditis, and 
others). Also various other bacilli and bacteria (for instance, actino- 
niyces fungi; botryococcus ascoformans) may act as pus-producing 
organisms. 

Regarding the origin of suppurations, Kreutzer expresses himself as follows : 
"Pus-forming bacteria irritate the tissues by their large masses, and also through 
proteins contained in their bodies attract leucocytes (chemotactic action) and pro- 
duce by this cell-infiltration a true inflammation. Toxins and ferments produced 
by pus-forming bacteria cause a breaking down of leucocytes, through a chemi- 
cal action, which makes their return migration impossible — disturb and prevent 
fibrin-formation, and peptonize all albumen of the tissues." In the horse the most 
frequent pus-producing organism, according to Kreutzer, is staph, pyogenes aureus 
and albus ; and in cattle streptococcus pyogenes predominates ; but in most in- 
stances various pus-forming organisms are present at the same time. In the pus 
of sheep, staph, pyogenes is chiefly present, while in hogs, dogs, and cats it is 
staphylococcus pyogenes aureus. 

Suppuration remains localized as a rule, in the form of suppurative 
catarrh (pyorrhea), ulceration, suppurative exudate (empyema) or sup- 
puration inside of the tissues (abscess) ; or it may be generalized through- 
out the circulation, and develops into pyemia. (See Chap. VII, section 6.) 
The local abscesses may become encapsulated, and heal by drying up and 
calcification. 

. For judgment, see under 9. 

8, Calcification 

Deposits of lime salts are found in food animals, either as diffused 
calcifications in various tissues (cartilage, fat tissues), or as circumscribed 
areas of calcifications, which partly appear as end-products of retrogres- 
sive tissue metamorphosis (calcified deposits within the muscles, calcified 
abscesses) ; and also deposits enclosing dead parasites. Circumscribed 
calcifications are also designated by the unsuitable name of concrements 
(page 203). 

Concrements proper, which occur as so-called intestinal, urinary, biliary, and 
renal calculi, and which are occasionally found in animals, are of no importance in 
meat inspection. 

For judgment, see under 9. 

9. Pathological Pigment Formation 

Abnormal pigmentation occurs principally in cattle and in calves ; also 
in sheep and hogs (Lemke, Feuereissen) as melanosis maculosa; or less 
frequently as melanosis diffusa, which may be confined to single organs 



Retrogressive Nutritive Disturbances, etc. 199 

(lungs, pleura, liver, meninges, various parts of the subcutis, musclar 
aponeurosis), or may be generalized. In the latter form all connective tis- 
sues may be intermixed with black-colored spots. The melano-sarcomata 
belong to the multiple tumor-formations. 

The condition described by Virchow as ochronosis — a brown to blackish colora- 
tion of the cartilage, tendons, and capsules of the joints — is brought on by imbibi- 
tion of the basic substance with coloring similar to that of melanin. It occurs in 
cattle, calves, and hogs. (Mosselmann, Brouvier, Lachmann, Helrout, Bail, and 
others.) 

The condition described by Goltz as xanthosis, and which is of comparatively 
rare occurrence, consists of a liver-brown discoloration of the muscles ; according to 
Roth and Resow, a designation of "brown atrophy" would apply more correctly to 
this condition. It is always associated with changes of the supra-renal capsules. 

The hematogenous pigment formations (changing of the blood coloring-matter 
in extravasations, etc., page 191), and the symptomatic discoloration of tissues 
(icterus) cannot be considered here. 

In judging cases of atrophic degeneration and infiltration of tissues 
(pages 194-199), it should be decided in the first place, w^hether the 
processes are purely localized or w^hether they represent symptoms of 
general affections. 

As localized cases are considered, all those conditions of atrophy, fatty 
infiltration, necrosis, suppuration, calcification and pigment-formation in 
which either the affection is slight and the localized diseased parts are 
removable, or the affected organ itself is considered as unwholesome and 
must be condemned as unfit for human food. 

Fatty infiltration, however, gives no cause for condemnation unless at 
the same time conspicuous changes in the consistence (pulpy softening) 
of such organs confer upon them the character of a spoiled condition. 

In necrosis and gangrene the meat should be carefully examined for 
evidence of septicemia; and in fresh suppurations a similar examination 
regarding pyemic manifestations should be made. 

General muscular atrophy should be judged according to the prin- 
ciples of emaciation (page 183). 

Pigment formation may appear wide-spread throughout the entire 
body (melanosis), thereby rendering the animal unfit for human food. In 
local pigmentations, judgment should be made in accordance with the 
regulations. 

The occurrence of cloudy swelling, fatty, mucoid, hyaline, and amy- 
loid degenerations points usually to severe generalized affections, and 
judging should be in accordance with the nature of the disease. 

Circumscribed calcifications — so-called lime concrements— have to be 
judged according to their etiology, especially if they appear in multiples, 
and are more or less extensive (see muscle concrements, page 203). 



200 Chap. VII. Abnormal Conditions and Diseases,, etc. 

[Tlie judg-ment of the conditions described above is carried out by 
the United States meat-inspection force on similar lines to those provided 
by the German regulations.] 

D< Hypertrophy, Hyperplasia, Metaplasia 

The h3'pertroph3' of an organ through enlargement of the elementary constitu- 
ents (hypertrophy), or through increase of these constituents (hyperplasia), has no 
importance in meat inspection, as in this condition the macroscopical composition 
does not appear changed. 

The condition designated as metaplasia, represents transformation of already 
developed tissues into other tissues, without intervention of organisms or connective 
tissues; it occurs in food animals as hone-formation in scars (castration scars), in 
the belly-fat and mesentery of hogs, etc., and is of no importance to meat inspection. 

Judgment. — Hyperthrophic and hyperplastic oi-gans give no cause for condemna- 
tion. Metaplastic tissues, however, should be condemned inasmuch as they repre- 
sent foreign bodies in the affected tissues. [The same disposition is observed by the 
United States meat-inspection force.] 

E, Tumors 

Nonmalignant tumors appear principally localized, and confined as 
-solitary or isolated new formations on one and the same part of the body. 

In malignant tumors (sarcoma and carcinoma) an affection of the 
-corresponding lymph glands is invariably associated, and sometimes there 
is extensive metastasis, which may result in generalized sarcomatosis and 
carcinomatosis, withoitt the accompaniment of cachectic conditions in the 
lower animals. 

Judgment. — Nonmalignant tumors are usually easily removed, and 
after their removal they have no influence on the wholesomeness of the 
part of the body from which they were excised. 

Regarding malignant tumors, transmissibility of sarcomas and car- 
cinomas to man by the ingestion of meat is probably to be excluded ; at 
any rate it is not yet proven. In most cases the affected organ, together 
with its lymph glands, is involved by malignant tumors to such an extent 
that it becomes unfit for human food, and should therefore be condemned. 

Where tumors are numerous, a decision is made from the extent of 
the lesions and the nutritive state of the carcass as to whether it should be 
passed for food, declared of an inferior quality, or be condemned. The 
latter should always be pronounced if metastasis occurs on numerous parts 
of the skeleton, body, or in the hanph glands ; or if secondary changes 
(watery condition, flabbiness, etc.) are observed in the muscles. 

Regarding so-called granulomata or infectious growths (new formations in 
tuberculosis, actinomycosis, botryomycosis. and glanders), note the chapter on infec- 
tious diseases. 



Malformations — Skeleton Muscles 201 

[According to B. A. I. Order 150, Regulation 13, section 23, any 
organ or part of carcass which is affected by malignant or benign tumors 
shall be condemned, but when the lesions are so extensive as to affect the 
whole carcass, the whole carcass shall be condemned.] 

F, Malformations 

Various malformations which occur in food animals are only of 
importance in meat inspection should they conspicuously change the 
appearance or structure of that respective part of the body. When 
marked structural changes are present, or if there be a repulsive appear- 
ance of the malformed part, it should be declared as unfit for human food ; 
in gilder cases only partial condemnation may be necessary. 

3. The Principal Affections of Tissues and Organs 

In the following section, only those pathologic-anatomical changes of 
tissues and organs will be discussed which possess a certain importance 
in meat inspection, and which have not been sufficiently described in the 
previous chapters. 

In judging these tissues and organic diseases in meat inspection, it 
should be understood that they usually cause purely localized changes, 
which require only removal of the diseased tissues or the respective 
organs, for only exceptionally do they affect the full value of the entire 
carcass. Therefore the judging of the diseases described below, which 
should be chiefly carried out according to the regulations, will not be 
further mentioned under the various processes, and will be specified only 
in such places where they have to be considered from an additional point 
of view. 

A, Skeleton Muscles 

I. Hemorrhages may appear in muscles as local and multiple hemor- 
rhages. The first occur from local traumatic influences which result in a 
tearing of the muscular fibers and their blood-vessels. Multiple hemor- 
rhages are sometimes due to toxic or infectious causes ; more frequently, 
however, they are of mechanical origin. 

Multiple hemorrhages in muscles of fattened hogs belong to hemor- 
rhages of mechanical origin ( f ragmentatio hemorrhagica carnis, Kitt). 
They result from tearing of the muscle fibers and capillaries in conse- 
quence of exertions, to which the fatty infiltrated muscular fibers are not 
equal on account of not being used to work. They are found as irregular, 
isolated spots, of sizes ranging from a pin's head to twice the size of a 
pea, in at least 8 per cent, of all the slaughtered hogs, and principally in 
the muscles of the diaphragm ; next in frequency they occur in the abdomi- 



202 Chap. VII. Abnormal Conditions and Diseases, etc. 

nal, psoas, and pelvic muscles. In rare cases they may also be found in 
all the skeleton muscles. Occasionally multiple hemorrhages may also 
occur in all species of food animals ; for instance, they were described in 
cattle, by Clausen. 

Multiple hemorrhages of toxic and infectious origin are accompany- 
ing symptoms of phosphorous poisoning, tetanus, and anthrax, as well as 
septic and pyemic diseases. Besides these, there are always present 
ecchymoses on the serous membranes and other characteristic lesions of 
the respective general diseases. The judgment of meat showing these 
hemorrhages should, therefore, be carried out according to the nature of 
the condition which produced them. 

2. Inflammatory processes of the muscles are principally of trau- 
matic origin, and are locally confined. Inflammatory changes which are 
scattered and not of traumatic origin (polymyositis) appear as symptoms 
of severe general afifections, and result frequently in muscle degenerations. 

Whether the so-called "chicken-meat appearance," which has been several times 
observed in calves and young cattle, represents always an interstitial myositis (Stoss, 
Bayersdorfer, or whether the condition might be the result of deficiency of muscle 
coloring matter, is not yet definitely established. The latter is probably also the 
case in iridescence of the muscles, which is occasionally observed on the longissimus 
dorsi muscle of hogs. More frequently, iridescence occurs on boiled, pickled, or 
smoked meat (see Chap. IX). 

3. Degenerations, cloudy swelling', or granular dcgcneratio'i! of the 
muscle fibers occur in severe intoxications and in febrile infectious dis- 
eases. The macroscopical appearance of the degenerated muscle shows a 
flabby, mellow, pale, gray, and cloudy condition ; microscopically, the 
muscle fibers show fine granular, dust-like, albuminous precipitation, 
which disappears upon addition of acetic acid (see page 194). 

In fatty degeneration the muscles appear still softer, yellowish, or 
mottled, with yellow stripes. JNIicroscopically, strong refractory bodies 
ffat globules) are found, which, under certain conditions, may cover the 
cross striations, and do not disappear upon addition of acetic acid (see 
Fig. 79). 

Regarding fatty infiltration, which should not be confused with fatty 
degeneration, see page 195. 

Hyaline or glassy degeneration is observed in hemaglobinemia, mor- 
bus maculosus, acute muscular rheumatism, and in parturient paresis 
(Zschokke). 

]\Iacroscopically, hyaline degeneration is only recognizable when it 
affects numerous muscle fibers. In such cases, the muscles appear cloudy, 
dull, pale, like the meat -of fish. Microscopically, the necrotic and so- 
called contractile substances appear homogeneous, glassy, and disinte- 
grated into flakes. 



Connective Tissue 



20^ 



The nature of hyaline degeneration of muscles observed in isolated 
cases in young cattle and calves, and producing a white or colored appear- 
ance, is not yet clear. 

The peculiar changes which were recently described as specific muscle 

degenerations (Ostertag)', and which were 
formerly designated as muscle actinomycosis 
(Duncker), also appear to be hyaline de- 
generation, according to David. This spe- 
cific degeneration develops also without a 
general diseased condition (Fig. 83). 

4. Lime concrements are often found in 
the muscles of hogs, and may occur in large 
numbers. Frequently they may be recog- 
nized by the naked eye as small, elongated, 
or round, gray or grayish-white points and 
dots. They are most frequently met with 
in muscles of the diaphragm and abdomen. 
These concrements are indicative of either 
the end-products of retrogressive metamor- 
phosis of the tissues, or calcification of dead 
parasites. The latter is occasionally con- 
firmed by microscopical examination, which, 
however, does not disclose the nature of 
the concrements in numerous cases. Glage 




Fig. 81. Amyloid degen- 
eration ; a, t r a n s V e r s 1 y 
striated normal fibers ; b, 
degenerated fibers; c, en- 
larged muscle nuclei ; d, 
connective tissue infiltrated 
with cells. X 250 diameters 
(after Ziegler). 



demonstrated cysticercus tenuicollis as 
the cause of lime concrements occurring 
in sheep. 

Tumors occurring in the muscles, embolic 
affections, metaplasia, and parasites are dis- 
cussed elsewhere. 

Blastomycosis of the muscles of cattle, de- 
scribed by Ostertag, is very rare. All the 
muscles are studded with fibrinous nodules in 
sizes ranging from a lentil to that of a walnut, 
the centers of which contain pvmctiform, yel- 
lowish, cloudy colonies. 

Judgment of the above affections of 
the muscles, see page 201. Occasionally, 
especially in the presence of lime con- 
crement, the meat must be considered of 
inferior quality. 




Fig. 82. Lime concretions in 
the muscles of hog. x 40 
diameters. 



204 



Chap. YII. Abnormal Conditions and Diseases, etc. 



B< Connective Tissue 



1. Hemorrhages. — Regarding the etiology and anatomy of hemor- 
rhages which occur in connective tissue, the same remarks apply which 
were stated above relative to hemorrhages of the muscles ; and also on page 
190, concerning hemorrhages in general. 

2. Imbibition with blood coloring-matter only occurs in general 
affections (intoxications and infectious diseases), where the blood becomes 
wax-colored, or where through action of water post mortem, the blood 
contained in the meat transmits coloring matter to the fluids of the tis- 
sues (for instance, meat exposed to the rain). 

But as meat from well-bled animals should only contain traces of 
blood, therefore only an insignificant local bloody imbibition can develop 

through the influence 
of water. Accord- 
ingly the larger 
bloody imbibitions are 
always suspicious. 

3. Inflammatory 
and breaking-dozvn 
processes in connec- 
tive tissue (hypere- 
mia, edema, phleg- 
mon, suppurations, 
etc.) appear under 
known pathologic- 
anatomical manifes- 
tations. Large and extensive edemas may be the symptoms of severe 
general affections (hydremia, cachexia). In suppuration and putrefac- 
tion of the connective tissues, pyemia and septicemia should be 
remembered. 

4. Emphysema. — ^The presence of air in the subcutaneous tissue and 
the intermusclar connective tissue may be artificially produced by inflat- 
ing the carcasses of calves and sheep (page 27), through forcing air into 
the subcutis. 

[This practice in this country is confined to Louisiana and Eastern 
Texas to meet the demands of the French people.] 

Furthermore, emphysema may result from injuries of the air-pas- 
sages and lungs, as well as through escape of gas from the intestines, in 
cases where adhesions of the intestines to the abdominal wall are present, 
causing perforation to take place. In such cases the collection of gas in 




Fig. 83. Specific degeneration of the muscle of 
hog, X 35 diameter. (After Duncker.j 



Fat Tissue — Bone Tissue 205 

the connective tissue becomes conspicuous by its disagreeable odor. The 
latter is also noticeable, when emphysema is the result of gangrenous 
decompositions, black-leg, septicemia, etc. Also injuries to the skin, 
which allow the subcutaneous tissues to come in contact with the outside 
air, may result in emphysema at such places where the skin is easily dis- 
placed ( extremities ) . 

The other pathological changes in connective tissue are either of no importance 
in meat inspection or are discussed in other parts ; such as parasitic affections, 
tumors, and embolic processes. 

Regarding the judgment of such changes in the connective tissue, see 
page 201. Inflated meat, according to the regulations, is to be declared 
unft for human food. 

C< Fat Tissue 

In general, the fat tissue is rarely affected by diseased changes ; occa- 
sionally, however, the following characteristics may be present : 

I. A sclerotic condition of the fat tissues (lipoma) occurs occasion- 
ally in the kidney fat of cattle and in hog leaf lard (especially in hogs 
from Bakony-Hungary). The fat tissue in these places appears in larger 
or smaller nodules, opaque, firm, almost like skin (called fat-stones by 
butchers). Microscopically, there is found a hyperplasia of connective 
tissue structures at the expense of the number of fat cells. 

2. Black pigmentation appears occasionally in the belly-fat of fat black-haired 
hogs, very probably the result of hemorrhages (Ostertag). They appear as numer- 
ous black irregularly-formed spots, frequently branched in the shape of trees or like 
veins. Besides a deposit of coloring matter (melanosis dififusa) may be frequently 
observed on the belly-fat of hogs, which gives to the bacon a bluish-black appear- 
ance, with fine dotted lines, and at some places a brownish tint (Glage, Feuereissen"). 
A green coloration of fat tissue and muscles near the intestinal tract, on the breast- 
bone, carpal joint, hips, and abdomen was found by Beel in cattle which were con- 
stantly pastured. In boiling the discolored meat of these regions an impregnated 
'■grass odor" appeared. 

3. Multiple fat necrosis has been repeatedly observed in the retro-peritoneal fat 
tissue on the fat of the mesentery, and on the omentum in the form of numerous 
yellow-white opaque colonies, up to the size of a ten-cent piece (Ostertag). It 
may be that this affection, which is usually of no consequence in meat inspection, is 
associated with a diseased condition of the pancreas (page 209). 

The judgment of the diseased changes of the fat tissue is indicated on 
page 201. 

D, Bone Tissue 

The various diseased conditions involving the bones do not require a 
special discussion at this time, since they mostly occur as purely local 
changes, are readily intelligible as to their pathologic-anatomical nature, 
and are of little importance in meat inspection. But inasmuch as diseases 



2o6 



Chap. VII. Abnormal Conditions and Diseases, etc. 



of bone- tissue and bone-marrow may also occur in association with gen- 
eral affections, as in rhachitis, osteomalacia, osteomylitis, pyemia, leukemia, 
or from a parasitic cause (tuberculosis, actinomycosis, botryomycosis, 
glanders, echinococci) they are mentioned in course of the description of 
these respective diseases. Regarding pigmentation of bone-tissue, see 
page 199. 

Although presternal calcification (Ostertag) does not belong directly 
to affections of the bones, nevertheless discussion of that condition is best 

given at this place. Occa- 
sionally there is found in cattle 
in the presternal fat-cushion, 
knobby, irregularly shaped for- 
mations with calcified contents 
of sizes ranging from that of a 
nut to as large as a man's fist. 
Occasionally these formations 
extend into the sternum as a re- 
sult of pressure. In a superficial 
examination these calcifications 
might be mistaken for tubercular 
lesions, but they are, without a 
doubt, of traumatic origin. They 
can be distinguished from tuber- 
cular processes by their appear- 
ance of plaster-Paris like masses, 
which are pure white in color. 
(Fig. 84.) 

For the judgment of bone af- 
fections see page 201. 




E, Cartilaginous Tissue 



Fig. 84. Cross section through the point 
of the breast of cattle with presternal calci- 
fication; a, lime deposit; h, normal cushion 
of the sternum; c, sternal bones. 

The pathological changes of 

the cartilaginous tissues have no significance for the inspector of meats. 

F. The Other Meat Components 

Diseases of other components of meat in the narrow sense, namely 
those of the nervous system, the lymph and blood vessels and lymph 
glands will be discussed later. 



G, Digestive Apparatus 

Traumatic inilauunation of the rumen. — Through the pricking of the 
rumen by sharp foreign bodies taken up with food, a chronic inflammation 
develops of a suppurative or sclerotic nature, which results in thickening 



Digestive Apparatus 207 

of the wall of that organ; and also, as a rule, in plastic or suppurative 
inflammation of the serous covering. Besides, adhesion of the rumen to 
neighboring organs may also develop, which generally involves the dia- 
phragm first. Through strong contraction of the muscles of the rumen, 
sharp foreign bodies are pushed forward and principally in the direction 
of the diaphragm. In their course around the tissues these foreign bodies 
form fibrous tissue, fistulous tracts and abscesses, with greenish-yellow 
pus. The abscess may develop between the stomach, liver, and dia- 
phragm, and may become the size of a man's head. 

After perforation of the diaphragm, these foreign bodies not infre- 
quently strike the pericardium, which is only about 3-4 cm. from it, result- 
ing^in pericarditis. 

Regarding septic peritonitis or pleuritis, which develops from perfora- 
tion of suppurative material into the abdominal and thoracic cavities, see 
Chap. VII, section 6, A, 12-13. 

2. Peptic Ulcers. — Round or peptic ulcers are occasionally found 
in the abomasum of calves in the form of sharply-defined erosions in the 
mucous membrane, with slightly rounded edges. The ulcers are not nec- 
essarily always round ; they may extend into the muscular coat of the 
stomach; and occasionally only the serous membrane of the thickness of 
paper is left intact. Similar ulcers may also occur in the duodenum. The 
inspector's attention is usually called to the presence of these affections 
in the abomasum, by peritonitis, which corresponds with the location of 
the ulcers; or a perforation of the ulcer may occur shortly before death 
of the animal, as during transportation for slaughter, etc., and in such 
cases the contents of the stomach are found in the abdominal cavity. 

Should the ulcer, through an early perforation, produce septic per- 
itonitis, the meat should be condemned as unfit for human food. In late 
perforations care should be taken in the judgment, on account of a repul- 
sive sour odor which the meat may possess (boiling test). Otherwise, 
peptic ulcers are of no importance to the veterinary inspector of meats. 

[If peritonitis develops in consequence of a peptic ulcer the carcass 
should be condemned according to B. A. I. Order 150, Regulation 13, sec- 
tion 18, a.] 

3. Diffused lymphadenia of the mucous membrane of the abomasum 
is sometimes observed in cattle. On the rigid stomach-wall the mucous 
membrane appears sometimes to the thickness of 5 cm., fatty, grayish- 
white, and glassy in places. 

4. The rarely occurring diphtheritic inflamination of the abomasum of cattle 
is, according to Ledschbor, due to a long filamentous bacterium, which resembles 
very much the bacillus necrophorus. 



2o8 Chap. \'II. Abnormal Conditions and Diseases etc. 

5. Multiple henwrrliagcs in the intestinal wall have been occasionally observed 
in cattle and hogs ; in the latter it is usually associated with multiple hemorrhages 
of the muscles (page 201). The origin of these hemorrhages is not yet sufficiently 
explained. It may be that the small hemorrhages are of purely mechanical origin 
(severe coughing, asphyxia) ; larger ones on the other hand, may have other causes, 
such as septic and other acute infections, which however may be excluded from 
cases mentioned here. To point out this fact is the only reason for mentioning 
these larger hemorrhages. 

6. Regarding characteristic changes of the intestines in hog cholera, see Chap. 
VII, Sec. 6, B. No. 3. 

7. Changes of the livev, which were formerly called angiomatosis, 
were recently designated as teleangiectasis by Jaeger ; this condition com- 
monly occurs in older animals, most frequently in a multiple and spotted 
form in cows (hemangioma cavernosum hepatis, Kitt). 

Even externally can be seen under the serous membrane of the liver 
deepened, irregularly formed, purple-red to bluish-black spots, in greatly 
varying sizes, sometimes confined to single sections of the liver, but may 
also affect the entire organ. On the cut surface the spots appear con- 
tracted, of a reddish tinge and spongy consistence (blood sponges), and 
are sharply separated from the otherwise normal liver parenchyma. 

According to Jaeger, the anatomical foundation of the teleangiectatic degenera- 
tion in the liver of cattle results primarily from a breaking down of liver cells in 
groups, leaving the bordering capillary endothelium intact. Thus the unafifected 
capillary blood circulation extends under its own blood pressure toward the 
margin of the altered parenchyma, forming sinuses, and finally cavernous spaces. 
There are no satisfactory explanations concerning the cause of this degeneration 
(illustration on Plate II, Fig. 2). 

8. Chronic interstitial hepatitis may occur in various stages in all 
food animals. In the earl}^ stages the liver appears greatly enlarged, 
grayish-brown in color, firm and dense (hypertrophic cirrhosis), while 
later it becomes smaller and harder, through the cicatricial contraction of 
the interstitial newly-formed connective tissue. Portions of the paren- 
chyma become obliterated, while intact parts of the latter protrude so 
that the surface and the section of the liver appear granular (atrophic 
cirrhosis, cirrhotic granular atrophy, hob-nail liver). 

According to Tschauner, cirrhosis of the liver in hogs appears to be produced 
occasionally by feeding alcoholic food-stuffs which are in the act of fermentation 
(swill). Cirrhosis of the liver in horses is of importance in diagnosis of so-called 
'"Schweinsberger disease." The cirrhotic connective tissue proliferation in the 
liver of cattle having distomatosis is, according to Jaeger, due to the irritating toxic 
products of metabolism from distomas in the bile ducts. 

9. Multiple liver necrosis is observed principally in cattle (necrosis 
nodosa. Kitt), but it occurs also in calves, sheep, hogs (hog cholera), 



Peritoneum 209 

horses, and dogs. Through the Hver, which is frequently enlarged, 
icteric, of an olive-brown to a red-brown color, are disseminated emboUc, 
pale-brown or grayish-yellow sharply circumscribed foci or nodules in 
large numbers. They are yv^ithout luster, brittle, compact, and surrounded 
in the early stages by a red zone, but later by a connective tissue capsule. 
Occasionally in later stages the necrotic masses are transformed into a 
greenish, flaky, pus-like fluid. The causative factor of these changes is 
the bacillus necrophorus, which is conveyed to the liver by the portal or 
umbilical vessels and obtains lodgment in that organ. 

10. Calcareo-Hbrous nodiiles are quite frequently found in the liver of the 
horse (chaHcosis nodosa). They are disseminated in all parts of the liver tissue, 
as sharply circumscribed yellow to yellowish-brown formations, of sizes ranging 
from a pin's head to that of a millet seed, and are parasitic in origin. 

11. A peculiar nodular formation in a calf's liver is described by Langer. He 
found in that organ sharply circumscribed foci situated under the capsule of the 
liver, which were of a grayish-white to an orange-red color, and of varying sizes 
up to a millet seed. Langer considers the foci as the remains of an infectious dis- 
ease, which is produced by a bacillus €rst isolated by Bugge, and which he termed 
bacillus nodulifacius bovis, a new species of the para-typhoid group. Manifestation 
of a general disease was not observed in the afifected calves. 

12. Fatty necrosis of the pancreas is observed in old, very fat hogs. The 
gi'eatly hypertrophied fat tissue enveloping the pancreas shows numerous dull 
grayish-yellow or grayish nodular areas, which are dry, hard, or cheesy. The gland- 
ular tissue propel appears intact, and therefore no disturbances in the general con- 
dition of the animals can be observed. The nature of the necrosis is still unknown 
(see also page 205, under C. 3). 

Regarding the judgment for the above-mentioned diseases of the 
digestive apparatus, see page 201. 

H, Peritoneum 

I. Mesenteric emphysema (intestinal emphysema Jaeger) of the 
hog. — On the small intestines and its mesentery are found not infre- 
quently single or grape-like clusters of air-containing cysts of sizes rang- 
ing from a pin head to a grape, which sometimes hang on pedicles. The 
walls of the cysts appear transparent, or are colored red, by hemorrhages. 
Sometimes the air-cysts accompany the course of the mesenteric vessels 
in the form of a rose wreath ; occasionally cysts are also found in the mus- 
cular coat of the intestines and in the lymph glands. The origin of this 
pneumatosis which was investigated by Schmutzer and Heydemann is, 
according to Jaeger, caused by the bacterium coli lymphaticum aerogenes, 
which belongs to the coli group and penetrates the intestinal wall, where it 
produces gas as a result of its great fermenting qualities ; it only secon- 
darily extends to the mesentery in severe cases. 
15 



2IO 



Chap. \'II. Abnormal Conditions and Diseases, etc. 



2. Hypophrenic Abscesses. — Abscess formations which may develop at any 
part of the peritoneum are of the greatest interest in meat inspection, and those 
suppurations which not infrequent!}- develop between the diaphragm, liver, and kid- 
neys of cattle maj' often reach a considerable size, and are encapsulated. In the 
process of removing the abdominal viscera, these abscesses are frequent!}- cut open, 
resulting in a soiling of the viscera and the parietal serous membrane of the body 
cavities with the contained pus. In such cases the serous membranes should be 
removed as well as the superficial laj^er of the meat which has been contaminated. 
Regarding other results from these abscesses, see page 299. 

3. Regarding perifonkis as a result of heavy infestation by cysticercus tenui- 
coUis, see page 232. 

4. M'ltltiple calcifications in the form of flat elevations ( Ostertag ' of sizes 
ranging from a pin head to that of a lentil, occur comparatively rarely on the peri- 
toneum in cattle, and must not be mistaken for tuberculosis. 

For the judging of the diseases of the peritoneum, see page 201. 



J. Genito^urinary Apparatus 

I. The white-spotted kidney of calves (nephritis fibro-plastica or 
maculosa alba) occurs more frequently than is really observed, as the 
recognition of these changes is frequently made ditRcult by the perirenal 

kidney fat. Even on the 
surface of the kidney 
may be seen slightly 
projecting whitish-gray 
spots, which are distrib- 
uted over numerous lob- 
ules, from the size of a 
millet seed to that of a 
bean and even a hazel- 
nut. On section the white 
spots appear as wedge- 
shaped or circular, juicy, 
shining areas, which ex- 
lend through the cortex, reaching to the medullary or tubular layer. In 
the medullary substance the grayish-white extensions appear less fre- 
tquently. The parenchyma of the kidney is generally unchanged: occa- 
:sioaalh" a slightlv reddened zone is found around the white areas ; or less 
frequently single punctiform hemorrhages are seen in the parenchyma, 
which, however, are probably coincident. 




Fig. 85. Kidney of calf with fibroplastic nephritis 



The nature of these spotted changes in the kidney is, according to Rieck, Kitt, 
Kabitz, and others, infectious emboli, while Vaerst considers the white areas as 
embryonic nodular remains of the blastemic state. 

De Blieck considers the process as an acute, hematogenous, toxic, parenchy- 
matous and interstitial nephritis, a diffused focal nephritis, the cause of which is 



Genito-urinary Apparatus 21 1 

unknown. Against this, however, Gillebeau emphasizes the fact that the inflamma- 
tory origin of the spotted kidney is neither histologically nor clinically understood, 
but that even De Blieck's findings speak for the blastemic theory. 

At any rate, this change in the kidney is without a noticeable influ- 
ence on the general condition of the calves; besides, its harmless nature 
is also confirmed by complete disappearance of the spots inside of the 
first year of life. 

The appearance of the above-described changes in a diffused extension over 
the entire cortical layer of the kidney, which is designated by Kitt as nephritis alba, 
or fibroplastica diffusa, is quite rare. These white spots are confluent to such an 
extent that the entire cortical layer appears to be of a whitish color. In the medul- 
lary layer there is always a hyperemia in such cases with hemorrhages, and edema- 
toift infiltration of parts adjacent to the pelvis of the kidney. 

2. From purulent nephritis, which, as a rule, occurs as a hemato- 
genous, embolic, focal nephritis, but which may also develop gradually, 
should be distinguished the bacterial (diphtheritic) pyelonephritis, which 
is a special form. It appears occasionally in cattle on one or both sides, 
and is probably of hematogenous origin (Bollinger, Ernst) and of a cryp- 
togenetic nature. 

The kidney is prominently enlarged, and its surface is either spotted 
with gray or totally gray in color. Moreover the kidney is enveloped in 
a fat capsule which has undergone a serous infiltration. On section a col- 
lection of slimy pus with a strongly smelling urinous odor is noted in the 
distended pelvis of the kidney and in the dilated calices, the walls of 
which are considerably thickened. The papillae of the kidney show a 
diphtheritic deposit, and pin-shaped, radiating, yellowish-gray streaks of 
various breadths extend from the center toward the cortex. In the same, 
and also in normally appearing parts of the kidney, may be found small, 
suppurative, softening foci. With progression of the lesion the kidney 
tissue degenerates more and more, until finally the enormously enlarged 
kidney may only represent a thin-walled cyst filled with pus (pyone- 
phrosis). Besides, the urethra also appears dilated and filled with pus 
in advanced cases, on one or both sides. 

The bacillus renalis bovis is accepted as the cause of pyelonephritis in cattle, 
but mixed infections also occur, so that according to Kitt, Cadeac, Lucet, and Ernst, 
the affection may be considered as polybacterial, similar to other suppurative 
processes. 

In judgment of pyelonephritis, there is to be considered the general 
condition, the nutritive state, and whether there are other suppurations 
in the body. 



212 Chap. VII. Abnormal Conditions and Diseases, etc. 

Unilateral pyelonephritis appears generally as a purely local affec- 
tion ; if bilateral, retention of urine has to be suspected, and the meat 
should be tested by boiling for odor of urine. The result of the latter, 
and also other changes which might be present, determine whether the 
meat should be declared of inferior quality or be condemned as totally 
luifit for human food. 

[In cases of bilateral pyelonephritis causing a retention of, urine, the 
carcass should be condemned according to Regulation 13, section 20, of 
B. A. I. Order 150.] 

3. Cystic and bladder kidneys not infrequently appear in hogs, cattle, 
a'nd. occasionally also in calves. The first are limited to single small or 
ISPg^P sections of the kidney from which the flow of the urine is pre- 
vented, while in the latter the entire kidney represents a cyst filled with 
urine (hydronephrosis). 

When me latter 'is found affecting both sides, greater attention is 

//IIkuOKTo anl-X'W. 02lB Viae. , ... ,. 

r.equired.in tlie ludgment'of the, meat, as not only meat m the surroundmg 

rbmw ,ai:fnfTq9nol9Tq, (:^i:tri3nJrlqrL , ,. . , , ' 

part-s may, be watery, but such, mav also occur at distant parts of the body. 

^9D{a fljod 70 prio no smj^o fa /HBrfOisb^ 

Besides -this edemato4is conditi<?i\, the. meat might possess a urinous odor. 

■;gx'o £ to Ijnc ( J^rrtj: .I'^'-^jimod) rti^no erjou. ^^ 

The boiling test should determine fhe extent of this condition, and in 

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.i?M?tiiiti«&?M §4 ^smn^^iUM^t td^-m^ ■^i9^tjqen^SB(iGbiipniV(HI,Ep[agg 
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fe3^«sWb is^farigtaioaQdafiJjl^ifeit&lIijidRcqaTpciailfJcna, s-BkouMiBbsnsigafcsisiltfiarsHd 
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euq !iiYtwCh$Bxi'!bis>^ fMBlih)^us'^<^^^ ©ekilgiH^ghjrdi'dihiettfei^Sl pf§tmx^ 
due to accumulations of muco-purMfeik gl^©ebt"iOrK"ifiartfeaf ^Stfgafca^n^M^nte 
catarrh (leucorrhea) may occasionally be followed by great emaciation, 
•!!?i?fs^^iVi!i|"'^fiffle{dm "^itf^Tb '6hm^\W~^'ieit &f1^i^m\0ii2f} '^(9ther- 

,i2m3 hrtB .joouJ ,Dj:'M)r,D ,;ji/I oJ ^riib-mooB inttj o?. .-lurioo op.la sriotjostni baxrm Jud 
Wise, the suppurative contents of the uterua is of no consequence ilthene 

are no pyemic or septicemic manifestations present. .-o^'.z'jooiq 

[In acute cases of diffused nephritis, the carcasses should be con- 

IdeQiU3»@;l9(rB.IA7df)i©iKjieBdSjEf, ilegtuilMipfflfrii3[qs€Gtfi®Txii89d5)i-|s\\-obj.s\ ril 

^nollRinqcim -i9rf:to 97fi 979rfJ 79rft3ftY/ hrn; /jIkip. 'jyiftitrjrt gdf .noitibrroo 

6. The infectious viginal catarrh of cattle (colpitis follicularis ini'^liitiisa/li^agi- 

nitis granularis infectiosa bovis, Raebigei"), of which the causes are probably spe- 



Udder — Respiratory Apparatus 213 

cific streptococci (streptococcus vaginitis bovis, Ostertag), is accompanied by a 
nodular formation in the inflamed mucous membrane. It is of no importance for the 
veterinary inspector. 

Regarding the diseases of the urinary and sexual apparatus, see page 201. 

K. Udder 

1. Catarrh of the udder is only mentioned as it has been mistaken 
for tuberculosis of the udder. The enlarged quarters of the udder arc- 
harder; from the teats of the diseased quarters may be squeezed out a 
thick ropy secretion, which is intermixed with pus ; the mammary lymph 
glands are uniformly swollen, but they are not lumpy and hard. On the 
cut-surface the milk-ducts are found to be dilated and filled with the 
above-mentioned secretion ; their walls are thickened, and occasionally the 
mucous membrane shows firm fibrous nodules, which, on superficial 
observation, resemble tuberculous nodules. The interparenchymatous 
connective tissue is increased ; the lobules of the glands are, however, 
apparently unchanged. 

In the course of catarrh of the udder some of the milk-ducts may 
become obstructed and dilated, so that cysts will develop, which on touch 
are lumpy (milk nodes) and are filled with a curdv content. 

2. Of the various inflammations of the udder, there will be men- 
tioned here only gangrenous and septic mastitis (Chap. VII, page 318), 
on account of the associated severe general affection, according to which 
the .judgment should be made. 

A catarrhal form of mastitis, which leads to agalactia, and which is called in 
Switzerland "yellow gait," is caused by a particular streptococcus. Dammann and 
Freese described an infectious inflammation of the udder in sheep which is pro- 
duced by a rod-shaped bacteria. 

3. Regarding the characteristic changes in color of cows' udders on boiling, 
see Chap. VIII. 

For judgment of the disease of the udder, compare with page 201. 

[According to B. A. I. Order 150, Regulation 13, section 18, d, 
carcasses which are affected with acute diffused mammitis should be 
condemned.] 

L, Respiratory Apparatus 

I. Siibpleural hemorrhages of the lung, which are very frequently 
seen in food animals, originate at the time of slaughter, and are to be con- 
sidered as hemorrhages from suffocation. They are punctiform, sharply 
defined, light red in color, and are disseminated over the entire lung. 
These hemorrhages are absolutely of no importance for the inspector, and 
should not be mistaken for ecchymosis of septic origin. 



214 Chap. VII. Abnormal Conditions and Diseases, etc. 




Fig. 86. Calcareo-fibrous nod- 
ule from the lung of a horse ; a, 
connective capsule; d, slightly, 
and Cj markedly calcified center 
(after Kitt). 



Fig. 87. Calcareo- 
fibrous nodules from the 
lung of a horse; a, con- 
nective tissue capsule; 
d, calcified zone (after 
Kitt). 



2. Of inflammations of the lungs especially to be noted are specific pneumo- 
nias, which characterize contagious pleuro-pneumonia in cattle and swine-plague 
(see pages 304 and 309)- 

3. Calcareo-Hbroiis nodules in the lungs are very frequently found 
in horses (chalicosis nodularis). They occur irregularly scattered in the 
parenchyma of the lung, and are usually very numerous, firm, readily peel, 
in sizes from a pin head to that of a hemp seed, and are rarely as 

large as a pea. 
'^^'- Their color is 

white or whitish- 
gray, and young 
« nodules appear 
glassy. There is 
^ no red zone sur- 
sounding them. 
The origin of these 
nodules, which oc- 
casionally appear at 
the same time in 
the liver (page 
208), might be 
traced back to em- 
bolic invasion of animal parasites (Olt, Kiinnemann, Schiitz, Grips). 

In differentiating the calcareo-fibrous nodules from those of glanders, 
it is to be considered that in the first place the red zone is absent ; further- 
more, they are of uniform size and consistence, possess pronounced incli- 
nation toward calcification, while all manifestations of glanders are 
absent. Though a normal condition of the bronchial glands might have 
some weight in comparison with glanders, there are instances where 
calcareo-fibrous nodules may also appear in the lymph glands. Besides, 
the histological structure of the nodules determines the nature of the 
affection, which is reproduced in the preceding illustrations (Figs. 86 and 
87), in comparison with the structure of glanders nodules Chap. VII, 
page 282. 

For the judgment of diseases of the respiratory apparatus, see 
page 201. 

4. Anthracosis of the lungs occurs in horses and cattle, as well as in dogs, in 
which about 60 per cent, may be affected with it (Feuereissen). 

5. Pollution of the lungs with blood and contents of the stomach may follow 
the slaughter of all food animals, as a result of inhaling these substances. Most 
frequently it occurs in animals which have been "shachted," but is found also in 
sheep (Miiller), cattle, and hogs. While blood can be readily recognized by the 
irregularly red-colored sections of the lungs, the aspiration of food can be only 
determined by cutting into the lung in the posterior third of the main lobe. Such 



Pleura — Circulatory Apparatus 215 

a procedure is necessary in examination for the presence of scalding water in the 
lungs of hogs. To deter'iiine the extensiveness of the aspiration of food, it is rec- 
ommended that during the act of cutting the bronchial lymph glands to sever 
at the same time the principal bronchus of each side; as otherwise the aspirated 
food, which does not extend into the small bronchi, cannot be seen. 

In the judgment of these pollutions of the lungs, their extent should determine 
the disposition of them. If the aspiration of blood is only slight, and the amount of 
food and scalding water limited to the trachea and large bronchi, the lungs may be 
passed after a thorough cleansing. In pronounced aspirations of blood the lungs 
should be declared of inferior quality. In the presence of food contents or scalding 
water in the deeper sections of bronchial tubes the lungs should be condemned as 
unfit for human food. 

« [Lungs containing aspirated substances, either solids or liquids, are 
condemned in the United States.] 

M, Pleura 

I. Petechia of the pleura may be present in perfectly healthy food 
animals, as suffocation hemorrhages resulting from slaughter (page 213), 
and should not be confused with hemorrhages of septic origin. 

2. False neuromas in the course of intercostal nerves are not infrequently 
observed in cattle. They are new formations of myofibromatous nature, of sizes 
ranging from that of a pea to a hazelnut — seldom larger — which develop from the 
nerve sheaths. 

3. Relative to melanotic pigmentation of the pleura, especially in calves, see 
page 200. 

4. Regarding secondary inHamniation of the pleura in contagious pleuro- 
pneumonia of cattle, swine plague, and rinderpest, see these respective diseases. 

Judgment, see page 201. 

N- Circulatory Apparatus 

1. Petcchina on the peri- epi- and endocardium of food animals 
are mostly the result of asphixiation at the time of slaughter, especially if 
they are present in connection with the above-described hemorrhages of 
the pleura and with those of the lung mentioned on page 213; but they 
may also result from sepsis or other acute infectious diseases. Hemor- 
rhages occur frequently on the auriculo-ventricular valves. 

■ Reddened patches at the level of the columnse carnse are of systolic origin and 
disappear at diastole ; they indicate a systolic pause of the heart. 

2. Pericarditis is most frequently observed as the result of trauma- 
tism in cattle, due to the pressing forward of sharp foreign bodies in the 
rumen. The degree and the form of such traumatic pericarditis may 
v^ary extraordinarily; and the judgment, therefore, is influenced by the 



2i6 Chap. VII. Abnormal Conditions and Diseases, etc. 

severity as well as possible complications from disturbances in circulation, 
and from fever. In febrile conditions it has to be always rememberei 
that traumatic pericarditis may be of septic nature ; however, it must also 
be recognized that a pericardial content with offensive odor is not suffi- 
cient for the determination of a diagnosis of sepsis (Chap. VII, page 296). 

Besides, pericarditis of serous and sero-Hbrinous form may be observed in. hogs 
as an accompanying symptom of swine plague (Chap. VII, page 304). 

Recovered forms of pericarditis appear not infrequently as "villous 
hearts" in cattle and in hogs. 

3. liiidocarditis is observed most fre(|uentlv in hogs as a verrucose 
valvular form, and occurs principally as a result of swine erysipelas infec- 
tion. Ulcerous and diphtheritic endocarditis may be of toxic or [)yeur.c 
origin, 

4. Cystic formations (hematoma and lymph cysts) on the auriculo-ventricu- 
lar valves were found frequently by Klaeger and Glage in calves and hogs; and 
not infrequently by Fischer in cattle. 

5. Phlcbectasii is found in older food animals as nodular dilations of tlie 
veins in parts rich in blood-vessels, principal!}' in the mesenteries. 

6. The formation of multiple infarcts in the spleen as a result of endocarditis, 
was lirst indicated by Ostcrtag. The splenic infarcts appear like wedge-shaped or 
round growths, at lirst dai'k red, later yellowish and white in color. After the 
resorption of the necrotic infarct areas there usually follows considerable shrinking 
of the spleen. The latter also follows rotation of the spleen. 

7. Rotation of tlvc sflccu is a rarely occurring condition to which Glage has 
called attention. The splenic tumor which develops as a result of the torsion of 
the blood vessels is distinguishable by absence of a softening* of the pulp. 

Regarding the judgment of these diseases of the circulatory apparatus, see 
page 201. 

[Carcasses affected with acute pericarditis should be condemned, 
according to B. A. I. Order 150, Regulation 13, section 18a. For judg- 
ment of other lesions of the heart appearing in association with various 
general affections, see these resjicctive diseases. | 

O, Skin 

1. Redd cii ill o^- of flic skill is only important from the standpoint of 
differential diagnosis in hogs, especially in connection with the presence 
of infectious diseases of these animals (swine erysipelas, etc.). 

2. Regarding i^-ranular eruptions (schrotausschlag) of hogs, see 
Chap. VII, page 225. 

3. The name of ''sooty maiigc" is applied to a pustular exanthema of young 
pigs, which leads to tiie formation of pilch-like scales (pitch mange), and occurs 



Central Nervous System, etc. 217 

as an accompanying symptom of general chronic affections. The latter, and also 
the condition of the animal, determine the disposition of the meat. 

P, Central Nervous System . 

Oi diseases of the central nervous system there will only l)e mentioned infec- 
tious cerehro-spinal meningitis of horses (meningitis cercbrospinalis enzootica), as 
it frequently occasions emergency slaughter. It is generally without influence upon 
the utilization of the meat, but in cases of delayed slaughter incomplete bleeding 
may be present. If the disease is of long standing, and is associated with marked 
decubitis or other injuries, as well as traumatic i)ncumon;a, a certain amount of 
caution is advisable. 

* 4, Diseases of the Blood and Constitutional Diseases 

A, Anemia ( Oligemia ) 

Anemia apj^ears in food animals as sym])t(jmatic or as .so-called per- 
nicious anemia. 

1, Symptomatic Anemia 

Sym])tomatic anemias are expressions oi various disturbances in the 
vegetative functions of the body, and as etiological factors internal para- 
sites, chronic intestinal or pulmonary affections, chronic cachexia, and 
tuberculosis play the most important part. 

Symptoms and Lesions. — During life paleness of the mucous mem- 
brane in advanced cases, dulness, loss of appetite, and emaciation point 
to anemia; while in the slaughtered animal it is observed only in 
advanced cases by emaciation and slight coagulation of the blood, as well 
as by the pale appearance of the muscles. The presence of certain organic 
afifections indicates the cause of the disease. 

Microscopical examination of the blo(xl may show considerable' 
decrease of red blood corpuscles (Shaper). 

The judgment depends on the primary affection which may be pres- 
ent and on the nutritive condition of the carcass. As a rule, this meat 
may be passed for human food, and only in advanced cases should it be 
declared of inferior quality. 

[According to B. A. I. Order 150, Regulation 13, .section 24, car- 
casses of animals which are too anemic to produce wholesome meat 
should be condemned. Advanced cases of anemia are usually asso- 
ciated with ])ronounced emaciation.] 

2, Pernicious Anemia 

The essential primary, pernicious or ]>rogressive anenna is a disease 
which has not yet been sufficiently explained ; but nevertheless, it is of 



2i8 Chap. VII. Abnormal Conditions and Diseases, etc. 

infectious or toxic nature, almost entirely confined to horses. The dis- 
ease runs an acute or chronic course. 

Symptoms and Lesions. — During life, in acute cases there is intermittent high 
fever, with greatly increased frequencj' in pulse, and rapid emaciation without any 
indications of a local affection. The red blood corpuscles show conspicuous changes 
in form, which is designated as poikilocytosis ; besides, there are macro- and micro- 
cytes present. In chronic disease ^he manifestations are the same as in symptomatic 
anemia. In slaughtered animals the acute cases show a cloudy swelling and fatty 
degeneration of the visceral parenchyma and muscles, with hemorrhages in most 
of the organs, especially under the serous membranes, spleen tumor, cellular infiltra- 
tion of the bone-marrow, hemoglobin infarcts of the kidneys, without any particu- 
lar conspicuous affection of the organs. In a more chronic type pathological 
changes are similar to those of symptomatic anemia ; only the bone-marrow is 
greatly changed, appearing like raspberry jelly, or as the bone-marrow of the 
embryonic state. 

Judgment. — On account of great emaciation and pronounced changes 
in the muscles and viscera, the meat should be considered badly spoiled, 
and, consequently, unfit for human consumption. It has not yet been 
proven that this meat is injurious to health. 

B, Hydremia 

The watery condition of the blood of food animals, wrhich occurs most 
frequently in sheep and cattle, develops as a result of insufficient assimi- 
lation of nutritive stibstances, or from over-abundant partaking of food 
containing a large amount of water. In the first instance it produces 
chronic disturbances of the blood-producing organs as in anemia, with 
which disease hydremia is usually associated. Swill and sugar-beets are 
foods containing especially large amounts of water. The symptoms in 
living animals depend on the extent of the afifection. Edema of depen- 
dent portions of the body (neck, brisket, abdomen, legs) is rarely absent, 
even in the earliest stages ; at the same time symptoms of anemia are 
apparent. In slaughtered animals well pronounced changes of the blood, 
such as noticeable thinness, and slight coagulability, are only found in 
advanced cases. Furthermore, there is an edematous appearance of the 
subcutaneous and intermuscular connective tissue and transudates in the 
body cavities. The muscles are relaxed, and rigor mortis is not well 
marked; only in very advanced cases (cachexia) are they discolored and 
grayish-red. In these cases there is also pronounced atrophy and gela- 
tinous infiltration of the fat tissue. 

Judgment. — In advanced hydremia the meat should be condemned as 
unfit for human food, on account of its repulsive changes, and its marked 
emaciation. 



Leukemia 219 

In less severe cases the slaughtered animals are allowed to hang for 
24 hours ; since, according to experience, a large portion of the transu- 
dates and edema of the connective tissue disappear by dripping and 
evaporation and through its resorption by the muscle substance. 

Therefore in the cutting of the carcass it becomes evident whether 
there still remains a distinct watery condition of the muscles in the deeper 
parts. If this cannot be noticed the carcass is released ; while, if visible, 
the meat should be sold after the removal of the watery tissues, as inferior 
quality under declaration. In mild cases deterioration occurs very rarely 
from the hanging of the carcasses. 

[In case hydremia is associated with emaciation or if the carcass mani- 
feste edema of the muscles and connective tissue, in consequence of that 
condition, the carcass should be condemned, according to B. A. I. Order 
150, Regulation 13, section 24.] 

C, Leukemia 

In food animals cases of true leukemia are more infrequent than 
pseudo-leukemia, which, however, sjiould be distinguished from the for- 
mer, etiologically and anatomically. 

To what extent these diseases are of an infectious nature remains to 
be explained. 

1, True Leukemia 

This disease, which depends on a marked and continuing increase of 
white corpuscles (leucocytes and lymphocytes), takes its origin from a 
hyperplasia of the lymphadenoid tissue — namely the spleen, lymph glands, 
bone-marrow, and also from the intestinal wall and other organs. The 
blood in this condition may contain a large increase of lymphocytes (leu- 
kemia lymphatica). On the other hand, the leukemia may be due to a 
migration of leucocytes from the marrow of the lx)ne, resulting in amyelo- 
genic leukemia. Accordingly the clinical anfl anatomical picture of the 
disease likewise varies. 

Symptoms and Lesions. — In living animals the suspicion of leukemia 
is only attracted, as a rule, in the lymphatic form, owing to enlargement 
of most of the accessible lymph glands. Besides there is a dulness of the 
animal, and a paleness of the mucous membranes. Examination of the 
blood establishes the correct diagnosis. The slaughtered animal shows 
slightly coagulable pale blood, the serum of which may be of a milky or 
pus-like consistence ; the coagulum in the heart and large blood-vessels is 
similar in appearance. There is also hyperplasia of the spleen and of the 
lymph glands, which may reach enormous proportions ; at the same time 



220 Chap. \'ll. Abnormal Conditions and Diseases, etc. 

the lymph glands are frequently very soft and moist. The bone-marrow 
has either undergone a lymphadenoid change to a raspberry jelly consist- 
ence, or it is like pus. Leukemic infiltrations or tumors may be present 
in any of the organs ; also hemorrhages in the kidneys, serous and mucous 
membranes, as well as in the muscles. The latter are considerably paler 
than normal, gray, flabby, and permeated with hemorrhages. The char- 
acteristic microscopical appearance of the blood cannot be discussed here. 

Jiidi^iiicnf. — On account of the severe and pronounced changes pres- 
ent the meat should be condemned as unfit for human food. 

I Carcasses affected with leukemia, which is invariably associated 
with a general swelling of the lymphatic glands, should be condemned, 
according to V>. A. T. Order 150. Regulation 13, section 18 h.l 

2. Pseodo-'leukeniia 

This disease manifests the same clinical aspect in its course as true 
leukemia. The pseudo-leukemia (Hodgkin's disease) is principally dis- 
tinguished from the latter through the fact that the numerical proportion 
between the leucocytes and erythrocytes of the blood is not disturbed. 
Pseudo-leukemic conditions occur occasionally in cattle and hogs, but 
rarely to such a degree that the general condition of the animal appears 
greatly disturbed. 

The anatomical lesions do not differ from those of leukemia ; Haff'ner 
foimd lymphoid areas in the entire nuiscular system of a cow, in the form 
of grayish spots. Regarding the judgment, carcasses shawing pseudo- 
leukemia should be treated like those with true leukemia. 

D. Rhachitis 

Rhachitis, which appears most frequently in young hogs, depends on 
an insufiicient calcification of the periosteal tissues, and on tlie irregular 
ossification of the cartilage, whereby excessive proliferation of cartilagin- 
ous and periosteal tissue takes place (Kitt). 

The clinical findings that are of interest here are the enlargements of 
the bones, especially on the epiphyses and cartilages of the ribs, the bend- 
ing of the extremities, and of the vertebral column, as well as the 
enlargements of the nose and superior and inferior maxillary bones 
(snuffle disease), which may be observed in hogs. The manifestations in 
tlie slaughtered animal correspond to the clinical findings and to the stage 
of the disease. In advanced cases lesions of severe nutritive disturbances 
and of cachexia may be present in the meat. 

J iidgiiiciif. — In the beginning of rhachitis, accompanied bv good 
I utritive conditions, there is no ground for condemnation. When the 



Osteomalacia 221 

disease is of medium dej^ree with jjronounced changes of the bones in 
addition to those affecting the bones of the head, the meat is considered 
of inferior fjuah'ty. Condemnation becomes necessary in very rare cases 
with cachectic changes of the muscles, and consirlerable emaciation. 

[Carcasses affected with rhachitis in an advanced degree should be 
condemnefl, according to l>. A. 1. CJrder 150, Regulation 13, section 22. | 

E, Osteomalacia 

This brittle con(htion of the lx>nes, with lifjuifl marrow called osteo- 
]jsathyr(jsis, is a softening of the Ixjnes of mature animals, as a result of a 
fliminution of the lime contents and a partial transformation of the bone 
intf^an osteoid mass CKitt). Klimmer and Schmidt designate this disease, 
which occurs most frequently in cattle, as a halisteresis ossium, and con- 
sider rhachitis and osteomalacia as identical in their nature. 

Symptonis and Lesions. — Oi the clinical inanifestations, the most 
marked is the occurence of bone fractures (fractures of ribs and pelvis j, 
without any corresponding cause being apparent. With this condition are 
also associated nutritive disturbances, swellings of the joints, and painful 
gait; later emaciation, hardened skin, and cachexia. The slaughtered ani- 
mals show hyperemia of the diseased bones, thinning of the hard outer 
part; softening of the bone substances, and even its transformation into a 
fibrous tissue ; transformation of the marrow of the bones into a dark- 
yellow to dark-red jelly-like mass; bone fractures; peeling off of the peri- 
osteum, and the wearing away of the joint. Although pronounced changes 
of the meat ap]jear usually only in cachexic conditions, occasionally they 
1-ii^ybe observed earlier, according to Klimmer and Schmidt. On account 
(IF Tjih^'^'ital changes of the walls of the blood-vessels, marked serous infil- 
t'r^noi^'^^ ri^f^the bordering tissues develop, the muscles become flabby, 
w'dt'er'^f' a!fi<'1',^'ks''a^'rule, darker and softer; their reaction is generally alka- 
lini''. "Tlie'fiiP'ti^sWe appears atrophied in the later stages. The preserva- 
tive f|uality of the meat is poor. 

Judi^mcnt. — According to the observations of Klimmer anrl Schmidt, 
animals affected with osteomalacia ought only rarely to be passerl without 
restriction. They recoi;iimj9nd,,,j.u(lging meat, finally, 24 hours after 
slaughter. Then if emaciation and slight changes in the meat are present. 
the,^n^nijvl|-,sll9uld Jic^.(;]pcJaJf?4Pif i"/i^<'li9?rffJWUt^/I fTf ]jronounced changes, 
and especially cachectic conditions are noticeable^fl^Uc; judgment must be 
made for total conclemnation. 
'J■v^&ll\ Gftri?:ji.?iftie&;*]ntjNVjii,lg ■^■^v/jnmmeih Qb%>g;?>'^ vOfl^f;ii;t.^;]•nala,<;i^a•.fthould be 

'emndi^mneil^rajcimrAinh^'^f'Mi ]^kK!.l]'fj)v(i'(ih/i'^(y"Jii^u\^tieM jr^i sectlr/M/i 22. | 
.rnrri \^-i. .'/;vin( l!vyu;<\>uv/\] .ii:r,/'yiri(,'/\ ot ;jm\)-to'yji: .CorruT ) nno^. -rn'f .r!:r;orn 0. 
C.I \\Fu:qSKrcQmatod!i1aTndi'xib!rcimmni'dtP)shi,:ih{hioh'jdiiiC^^ feavol been .vnmi- 

tioned on page 200. 



222 Chap. \'II. Abnormal Conditions and Diseases, etc. 

G. Cliolemia, uremia, and hemoglobinemia, which frequently are classified with 
affections of the blood, will be discussed with auto-intoxications (Chap. VII, 7,). 
Hemoglobinemia will also be referred to, under diseases of invasion (page 254). 

5. Diseases of Invasion 

The diseases of food animals caused by animal parasites — the dis- 
eases of invasion — are either of purely local nature (diseases of organs), 
or they appear on various parts of the body, and may, therefore, be desig- 
nated as general parasitic affections. According to their importance in 
meat inspection, the animal parasites of food-producing animals may be 
classified in the following three groups : 

(a) Parasites zvhich arc not injurious to man. — To this class belong- 
all parasites represented on pages 222-234 (with the exception of pentas- 
tomum tsenioides), and those protozoa which excite general parasitic 
affections. 

(b) Parasites zchieh only indireetly may beeontc injurious to man. — 
Echinococci and pentastomes. 

(c) Parasites zvhich are transmissible to man by the ingestion of 
meat. — Measles and trichinae. 

A. Parasitic Diseases of Organs 

The parasites of organs described below may all be united in as far as 
the judgment in meat inspection is concerned. As has been stated, they 
are not transmissible to man. The organs invaded by the parasites should 
be condemned as unfit for human food in all those cases where the para- 
sites are not removed in the commercial preparations of the parts ( intes- 
tines), or if the organ in all of its portions contains parasites, or their 
presence gives to the organ a repulsive appearance. If the latter are con- 
fined, or the parasites invade only single sections of an organ, then only 
the changed parts should be condemned. 

1. Parasites of the Skin 

(a) Hypodcrnia Larvcc 

The larvae of the Hypoderma bo vis (oestrus bovis) gad-fly, develop 
in the subcutis of cattle. 

Development.— Tht gad-fl}^ deposits its sticW eggs on the skin of cattle, w^here 
they undergo the first process of development, and through licking are brought into 
the mouth. Verj' soon (June), according to Koorevaar, transparent larvfe, 2-4 mm. 
long, are found in the wall of the esophagus, from whence they migrate partly to 



Parasitic Diseases of Organs 223 

the suljcutis, but usually toward the vertebral canal CHinrichsen, Ruser, Koorevaar), 
in order to further develop in the dural fat tissue, and later to proceed to the sub- 
cutis. There they grow until the ninth month after the invasion to the length of 
28 mm. and 12-15 muT. in breadth. They are backish-brown, roller-shaped larvec, 
which begin in April to migrate to the outside by breaking through the skin, in 
order that they may change into pupje in the ground. 

Lesions. — "Warbles," or "gad boils'" are flat, nodular elevations of tbe 
skin, especially along the back, from which, under certain conditions, larvae 
surrounded by pus may be squeezed out. After the skin is removed, dirty, 
greenish-yellow, suppurative areas are found in the subcutis, with edema- 
tous infiltration of the surrounding parts, extending even into the muscles'. 
The latter may also be found invaded by dirty, greenish larval passages. 

^i. Psoroptes ovis (sucking mite, Fig. 8S) produces the skin eruption 
organs, see the above. 

(b) Scabies Mites 

1. Psoroptes ovis (sucking mite, Fig. 88) produces the skin eruption 
designated as sheep scabies, which affects the woolly parts of the body, 
and begins mostly at the sacral region. 

Symptoms and Lesions. — Loosening of the wool, which extends over 
the surface of the body in various places, leaving vesicles and pustules on 
the skin ; later scabs with sticking together of the wool, thickening of the 
skin, formation of folds and fissures, itching, especially when warm. In 
extensive affections emaciation, anemia, and cachexia are present. 

Cases of psoroptic scabies of sheep and horses, as well as sarcoptic scabies of 
horses, must be reported to the police authorities, according to the Imperial law on 
Infectious Diseases. 

[The movement of scabies cattle and sheep in the United States is 
restricted by the existing regulations which prohibit the shipment of 
affected and exposed animals unless they are destined for immediate 
slaughter.] 

2. Sarcoptes equi (S. scabiei coinmunis) produces scabies of horses, 
which commences with slight granular elevations and papules on the 
thickly-haired protected portions of the skin, and progressing leads to 
serous exudates, scabs, and scab formations. In advanced cases hairless 
spots, thickened skin, pustules and flat swellings may develop ; also emacia- 
tion may appear. Itching is generally well marked. 

3. Demodex phylloides {demode. v folliculoriim suis) — the hair-fol- 
licle mite of hogs — produces nodules and pustules of sizes frequently rang- 
ing from a millet seed to that of a hazelnut. This not infrequent acne erup- 
tion appears on the snout, neck, pectoral region abdomen, the inner sur- 



224 



Chap. VII. Abnormal Conditions and Diseases, etc. 



face of the thighs and flanks, and is manifested by grayish or yellowish- 
gray pustules, as well as by being sharply defined from the neighboring- 
parts (Ostertag). 

4. , Demodex folUcidoriun caiiis causes the demodex mange, which 
occurs frequently in dogs, where it invariably appears locally on the face, 
the pectoral region, and on the paws, but may also extend over the entire 







Fig. 88. Male of dermato- 
coptes communis, viewed from 
the abdominal side. x 50 
diameters. (After Ziegler). 

Fig. 89. Sarcoptes scabiei v 
eqiii. Above to the left, male ; 
below, dorsal view of female ; 
above to the right, female ; be- 
low, ventral side of male, x 
75 diameters. (After Hutyra- 
Marek) . 




Fig. 89 



skin and result in emaciation. Characteristic lesions are the red and 
bluish-red papules and pustules, from which a sero-purulent bloody fluid 
may be squeezed out. 

5. Sarcoptes can is produces sarcoptic mange, frequently aft'ecting 
dogs. It appears principally on the head, but is found on other parts of 
the body ; also it is manifested as red spots, later by nodules and vesicles 
with exudates and scab formations, loss of hair and emaciation in exten- 
sive cases. 



The other forms of scabies in food animals are : The dermatocoptes and der- 
matophagus scabies of horses and cattle; the sarcoptes and dermatophagus scabies in 
sheep and goats and the sarcoptes scabies of hogs. With the exception of the der- 
matocoptes scabies of the horse, they are of no importance in meat inspection or to 
veterinary police supervision. 



Parasitic Diseases of Organs 



-"-'D 



[According- to E'. A. I. Order 150, Regulation 13, section 16, carcasses 
showing advanced lesions of scabies associated with emaciation, or if the 
inflammation extends to the flesh, should be condemned. In mild cases 
the carcasses are passed for food.] 

On calves there are occasionally found immense numbers of lice (haemato- 
pines) ; and in order to prevent their crawling on the meat, it is advisable to have 
the skin removed immediately after slaughter. 

(c) Coccida 

Coccidium fuscum, which was discovered by Olt, is the cause of coc- 
cidfSsis cutis, spiradenitis coccidiosa, in the granular eruptions of hogs. 
These protozoa, the classification of which as coccidia is disputed by Liihe, 
penetrate into the sweat glands and produce chronic inflammation in the 
same with a damming up of the secretion. 

Lesions. — On various parts of the skin pale bluish-gray, lead-gray, 
or yellowish-brown nodules develop, of sizes ranging from a pin-head to 
the double size of a pea. They are semi solid, lying very superficially in 
the skin, contain a cloudy, watery or bloody smeary mass, and sometimes 
rolled-up hair. 

A disturbance in the general health is not connected with this 
eruption. 

2, Parasites of the Respiratory Apparatus 

(a) CEstrus Larva; 

The larvae of the gad-fly of sheep (oestrus ovis) invade the nose and 
sinuses of the sheep. 

Developmevht. — The fly deposits eggs or already partially developed larvse on 
or into the openings of the nose of sheep, from vi^hence they migrate into the nasal, 
frontal, and maxillary sinuses as well as into the cones of the horns, and there 
develop within nine months into yellowish-brown larva;, 20 to 30 mm. in length. 
They are expelled to the outside by sneezing, blowing, shaking (shaking disease), 
and burrow into the ground where they change into a chrysalis stage. 

Symptoms and Lesions. — Catarrh of the respective mucous mem- 
branes, mucopurulent nasal discharges, shaking, sneezing, brain irrita- 
tions; swelling of the mucous membrane with hemorrhages and loss of 
substance; finally the presence of larvae which are enveloped in pus and 
mucus and which may become fetid. 
16 



226 Chap. VII. Abnormal Conditions and Diseases, etc. 

(b) Pentastomes 

The Pentastomum tsenioides, which resemble the tapeworm, infests the nasal 
cavities and sintises of dogs and men, and produces only slight catarrhal disturb- 
ances. These parasites, which belong to the arachnoidse, are from 15-20 mm. long 
Cmale), and 80-90 mm. long (female). 

For the verterinary inspector the only parasite that is of importance on account 
of its larval condition is the pentastomum denticulatum. This develops from the 
eggs of the P. tsenioides, which reach the outside with the nasal mucus, and are 
then taken up by herbivorous animals. There the embryos are set free in the 
digestive apparatus, and reach either actively or passively the mesenteric glands, 
liver, lungs, or peritoneum, where they become encapsulated and form cysts. 

(c) Parasites of the Lungs 

1. Strongylus paradoxus. — This strange palisade worm occurs very 
frequently in the lungs of both domesticated and wild hogs, but according 
to Miiller, only in young animals. The males are 16-20 mm. and the 
females 40 mm. long, and they live in the trachea and bronchi, where they 
produce only slight catarrhal disturbances. Lungs affected at the places 
invaded by a large number of these worms have elevated, flat, dense areas, 
with a mother-of-pearl luster. 

As the latter indications may be absent in spite of the presence of the para- 
sites, it is advisable to cut into every hog lung posteriorly. If worms can be 
squeezed out of the cut surface, another cut is then made a few centimeters ante- 
riorly, and if parasites are also found there the center of the lung may then be con- 
sidered infested. 

2. Strongylus filaria, the thread worm of the lung, lives in the bron- 
chi of sheep, goats, deer, and roe, where it produces catarrh and pneumo- 
nia. In sheep it occasionally occurs in such immense numbers and exten- 
siveness that entire flocks become infested with it, and a large number of 
sheep succumb from pneumonia and cachexia (lung-worm plague). The 
findings are similar to those for the previously described parasite. The 
males are 25 and the females 84 mm. long. 

3. Strongylus ovis pulmonalis (lung hair-worm), 10-30 mm. long, 
lives as reddish-brown parasites in sheep, goats, deer, and chamois. It 
produces in the lungs small yellowish or greenish-gray hard nodules or 
wedge-shaped areas. In cutting into these places caseous, gray, crumbling 
masses are found, which contain eggs, embryos, and dead parasites. 

4. Strongylus micrurus is found comparatively seldom in the lungs 
of cattle and calves. It also occurs in deer, roe, and horses. The 
30-40 mm. long male and 60-80 mm. long female parasite are recognized 
through the mother-of-pearl litster of the hard lobuli, and occur preferably 



Parasitic Diseases of Organs 



227 



at the base of the lung, where the parasites are lodged in the dilated bron- 
chi. Occasionally dead parasites may be found in greenish-colored nodules 
(Ostertag). 

5. Strongyhis commutatus occurs rarely in the lungs of sheep and 
goats, but more frequently in hares and rabbits. The 30 to 70 mm. long 
worm produces in the lung tissue proper inflammatory areas of sizes from 
that of a hemp seed to a hazelnut, which have a yellow caseous content. 
Occasionally the parasite produces enzootic losses in rabbits. 

According to Schlegel, the Strongylus commutatus is comparatively frequent in 
sheep, and is also the most harmful lung-worm of this species. It is supposed to 
be always present in the dark-brown to black or violet-red nodules of the lungs 
of "Sheep. 

3, Parasites of the Digestive Apparatus 

(a) Gastrus Larvce 




I. The larvae of Gastrophilus equ the stomach bot of the horse, 
live as 18-20 mm. long, roll-shaped, yellowish, meat-colored bodies on the 
cardiac portion of the mucosa 
of the horse's stomach. Occa- 
sionally they also occur in the 
dog (Fig. 90). 

The gad-fly lays eggs i mm. long on 
the hair of the horse, where, within 3-5 
days, the worms slip out of the eggs. 
They are then licked off, reach the 
stomach, burrow themselves into the 
mucous membrane, and are developed 
after 9-10 months into full-grown larvae, 
which are ejected with the feces. 

2. The larvae of the Gastrophilus 
hsemorrhoidalis of the horse are more 
slender than the former, and of a 
lighter red color. 

3. Larvae of the Gastrophilus duodenalis occur in the pyloric portion of the 
stomach of the horse. They are whitish-yellow in color, and measure 13-15 mm. in 
length, 

(b) Round Worms 

I. Strongylus contortus, the contorted palisade worm, lives in the 
abomasum of sheep and goats ; seldom in young cattle. The reddish- white 
worms are 16-20 mm. long. The blood-sucking parasite produces, through 
heavy infestations, anemia and cachexia. If they appear extensively in 
a flock of sheep, it is spoken of as stomach-worm epizootic of sheep. 




Fig. 90. Gastrophilus equi, a, male fly; 
b, larva (after Ziegler). 



228 



Chap. VII. Abnormal Conditions and Diseases, etc. 



2. Strongyhis Ostertagi (S. convolutus), conglomerated palisade 
worm, lives frecjuently in the abomasum of cattle, sheep, and goats. The 
location of the 7-13 mm. long worms, which lie under the epithelia of the 
mucous membranes, are indicated as round elevated spots the size of lentils, 
and with a central opening. The presence of large numbers of these 
parasites may result in emaciation. 



Strongylus convolutus as well as various other strongylidK, according to 
Schnyder, are the ca-cise of chronic diarrhea in cattle in Switzerland, which is desig- 
nated as "kalkbrandigkeit. " 

3. Strongylus rubidus was the cause of a severe affection in hogs, observed by 
Oppermann, consisting of a diphtheritic or chronic inflammatory affection of the 
gastric mucous membrane, which resulted in severe anemia to the sucking mother 

pig- 

4. Trichocephalus affinis, which generally occurs only in cattle, sheep, and 
goats, was found by Meyer in large masses in the large intestines of a hog. T. cre- 
natus was also found by Haase (Heine). 

5. Oxyuris curvula Rud., and Oxyuris mastigodes, Nitsche, occur in the large 
intestines of the horse, according to Jerke. 

6. Sclerostomum quadridentatum (Sticker), edentatum (Looss) and bidenta- 
tum (Sticker), formerly known as strongylus armatus, inhabit the large intestines 

of horses, and their embryos produce aneurisms (of the ab- 
dominal blood vessels). 

7. Spiroptera sanguinolenta, the blood-sucking, coiled-tail 
parasite which lives in minute cavities under the mucous 
membrane of the esophagus and stomach of dogs. 

8. Ascaris megalocephala, the large-headed stomach- 
worm which is most frequently found in the small intestines 
of horses, and 

9. Ascaris lumbricoides of cattle and hogs. In cases of 
heavy infestations of ascarides in the intestines of calves 
and sheep there will be noticed an abnormally stale, sourish 
odor and flavor of the meat (Morat, Laubion, Leibender, 
Vallisnieri, Mathis). 

10. Larvae of Ankylostomum radiatum (Schneider) 
(^Dochmius, Strongylus, Uncinaria), which infest the small 
intestine and cecum of European cattle and sheep, are, ac- 
cording to Scheben, the cause of helminthiasis nodularis 
intestinalis, also called nodular disease of the intestines. 
In the intestines of American cattle and of American and 
Australian sheep, the Ankylostomum Strose and Oesophag- 
ostomum Curtice are present as the cause of the formation 
of intestinal nodules. 

11. Gnathostoma hispidum (Cheiranthus hispidus), the 
three-colored stomach-worm, lives on* the blood from the 
mucous membrane of the stomach of hogs. This parasite, 
which is 2 to 3 cm. long, has a spherical head which is 

separated by a deep furrow from the remainder of the body. 

12. Echinorynchus gigas, the giant worm, is from 7 to 9 cm. (males), and 
30 to 40 cm. (females) long, and inhabits the -small intestine of hogs. At the 




Fig. 92 



Fig. 91 

Fig. 91. Full-grown 
taenia echinococcus. x 
12 diameters (after 
Ziegler). 

Fig. 92. Head of 
the bothriocephalus 
latus (Bremser) en- 
larged (after Heller J. 



Parasitic Diseases of Organs 229 

point of attachment it produces a circumscribed inflammatory nodule and small 
abscesses which may then be easily mistaken for a tuberculous nodule. 
For the discussion of trichinae in the intestines, see page 245. 

(c) Flat Worms 

I. Taenia (Moniezia) expansa produces the most important and fre- 
quent tapeworm disease of sheep, and in young animals causes emacia- 
tion, diarrhea, cachetic anemia, followed by death. It also occurs in cat- 
tle and is from 2 to 6 m. in length. 

Recently there have been various distinct species separated from the principal 
sp«cies, Taenia expansa. The cysticercus stage of this parasite lives probably in the 
so-called sheep tick (Melophagus ovinus). 

Of the remaining flat worms found in food-producing animals may be men- 
tioned the following : 

2. T. denticulata of cattle and sheep, cysticercus unknown, 25-80 cm., some- 
times 150 cm. long. 

3. T. (Anoplocephala) perfoliata of horses, 3-5 cm. long. 
-f. T. (Anoplocephala) plicata of horses, 10-25 cm. long. 

5. T. (Anoplocephala) mamillana of horses, 1-3 cm. long. 
In dogs are found: 

6. T. marginata, i J/2-2 m. long, which is the adult of cysticercus tenuicollis of 
sheep, hogs, and cattle. 

7. T serrata, yi-i m. long, which i^; the adult of cysticercus pisiformis 
of hares. 

8. T. coenurus, 40-60 cm. long, which is the adult of coenurus cerebralis 
of sheep. 

9. T. cucumerina (Dipylidium caninum) 10-40 cm. long. Its cysticercus stage 
is in the dog louse (Trichodectes canus latus), and in the dog flea (Pulex 
serraticeps). 

10. T. echinococcus, 3-4 mm. long, which has its origin from either the Echi- 
nococcus unilocularis or E. multilocularis (page 235) of ruminants and hogs (Fig. 91). 

11. Bithriocephalus latus, the larval stages of which are found in the muscles of 
pike, perch, eel, pout, grayling, and trout (Fig. 92). 

Recent investigations (Vaullegeard) appear to establish the fact that heavy 
parasitic infestations occasion the production of toxin-like poisonous products in 
the intestines. 

(d) Flukes 

I. Distouium hepaticum s. Fasciola hepatica L., the large distoma, 
occurs in the bile ducts of the liver of cattle, sheep, goats, hogs (very 
rarely), and deer. Distoma or their remains may occasionally be found in 
the lungs, spleen, heart, subcutis, muscles, and beneath the serous 
membranes. 

This leaf-shaped worm is 20-40 mm. long and 12-15 "''"''• broad at its 
widest portion. Its color is muddy-yellow to greenish-brown. It has an 
oral and ventral sucker and its cuticula bears scale-like thorns (Fig. 93). 



230 



Chap. VII. Abnormal Conditions and Diseases, etc. 



with food or water. 



The invasion of the distoma occurs in the larval state (Cercaria), which 
develops in small water snails {Limncsus minutus and L. pereger) and is ingested 
In the intestines the Cercaria burst their cyst-wall and wander 
through the ductus choledochus into the liver; some 
may also reach this destination upon penetrating an 
intestinal vein, whereupon they are transmitted by the 
portal circulation. They develop in the bile ducts of 
the liver, become sexually mature, and with the bile 
enter the intestinal canal, to be discharged with the 
feces. 



The lesions in the liver depend on the in- 
tensity and duration of invasion. If the latter 
is recent (3 weeks) and heavy, symptoms of 
acute inflammation of the liver may be ob- 
served. Occasionally hemorrhages of the liver 
may also occur. Later, we find changes in the 
bile ducts ranging from simple catarrh of the 
mucous membrane of the bile ducts to a 
chronic hyperplastic inflammation of their 
walls with considerable hypertrophy and cal- 
careous incrustations. Either synchronously 
or following this there may develop a chronic 
interstitial hepatitis with indurations and con- 
tractions (hypertrophic cirrhosis of the liver). 
In the majority of cases the liver tissue itself 
remains unchanged. Occasionally one may 
find suppurative cysts, in which living or dead 
flukes reside, in the parenchyma of the liver 
communicating with the bile ducts. 




Fig. 93. Distomum he- 
paticum with male and fe- 
male sexual organs (after 
Leuckart). x 3.2 diame- 
ters. 



Jaeger attributes the action of the distomes on the tissue of the liver to their 
toxic products of metabolism. 



While the general condition of other animals is not visibly disturbed 
by invasion of the liver fluke, as a rule a severe and extensive occurrence 
of the disease in sheep (liver fluke pest or rot) occasions serious losses by 
producing digestive disturbances, icterus, anemia, and cachexia. 

Examination. — Expression of the bile ducts, incisions into the liver, 
so as to strike the main ducts ; for instance, on the stomach surface of the 
liver of cattle, to the left of the porta and at the base of the Lobus 
Spigelius. 

2. Distomum lanceolatttm s. Fasciola lanceolata, the lancet-shaped 
fluke occurs most commonly in the liver of sheep, more rarely in cattle, 
hogs rabbits, hares, and also in man. 



Parasitic Diseases of Organs 



231 



The worm attains a length of only 4-9 mm., and a width of 1-2.5 "im- 
(Fig. 94). Its anterior portion is quite motile, and stained black in parts. 
Its invasion occurs in a manner similar to the preceding. 

This liver fluke may "also infest whole herds and produce numerous 
deaths, as Roenier observed in goats. 

Findings and examination. — The parasite occasions only slight catar- 
rhal changes in the bile ducts, and its presence is frequently not discern- 
ible at the surface of the liver. They are, therefore, found only on inci- 
sion of the bile ducts where they are frequently present in large numbers. 

The judgment of distomatosis depends on the number of flukes and 
the probable changes in the liver. If the latter are absent, or restricted to 
the large bile ducts and the distomes confined to these, they may be 
entirely removed by careful dissection of the bile 
ducts, and the remaining tissue of the liver utilized. 
If, however, the flukes are also present in the 
smaller bile passages, or if severe indurative or sup- 
purative processes are present, the whole organ is 
then confiscated and destroyed. 

[According to B. A. I. Order 150, Regulation 13, 
section 23, if the liver shows an infestation with 
flukes, it should be condemned.] 

3. Paramphistomum conicuni, nine-pin-shaped fluke 
(Endloch), occurs as a 4-12 mm. long, 1-3 mm. thick, red- 
dish-white worm on the mucosa of the first and second 
stomachs of cattle, sheep, goats, deer, and buffalo. It is 
rare in Germany and of no importance whatever. 



(e) Protozoa 




I. Coccidium zurnii is of interest, as it causes the red 
diarrhea of cattle (Dysenteria hemorrhagica coccidiosa 
Hess). The oval or spherical unicellular coccidia belong 
to the Sporozoa and inhabit the epithelium of the intesti- 
nal mucosa, producing severe inflammatory processes. 

The symptoms in the living animal may be summarized 
as a usually acute diarrhea, mixed with blood and accom- 
panied by a general febrile condition. In the slaughtered 
animal is found severe inflammation of the intestines, 
with blood-red intestinal contents. 

In the judgment of such cattle the meat cannot be con- 
sidered as dangerous to health, yet on account of the ex- 
isting severe general disturbance its value is impaired. In 
very severe cases where the animals are greatly emaciated, 
the meat will sometimes be found unfit for human food. 

2. The Coccidium oviforme (Fig. 95) inhabits the epithelium of the bile ducts 
cf the rabbit liver, and produces abscess-like nodviles and cysts. 



Fig. 94. Distoraum 
lanceolatum (after 
Hertwig) s', oral 
sucker and entrance 
to the fork-shaped 
intestine, s", ventral 
sucker ; h, testicle 
with vasa deferentia; 
c, cirrus; u, uterus; 
0. ovarium; /, canal 
of Laurer and yolk 
gland ; d, shell 
glands ; w, excretory 
vessel ; g, ganglion. 
X 8 diameters. 



232 



Chap. VII. Abnormal Conditions and Diseases, etc. 



3. Coccidhmi perforans, which is also parasitic in the intestinal epithelia of 
rabbits, produces profuse diarrhea. It is said to occur also in the intestinal epi- 
thelia of sheep and calves. 

4. Coccidimn fiiscum occasions the shot-like skin eruptions (Schrotausschlagj 
of the hog. I 

4, Parasites of the Pleura and Peritoneum 

(a) Cysticejxus tenuicollis 

The slender-necked bladder worm is a frequent parasite of hogs and 
ruminants, particularly of sheep. It is frequently found on and beneath the 
serous membranes, especially of the omentum, mesentery, and liver in the 
form of flabby bladders, or vesicles, filled with serous fluid, ranging from 
a pea to a man's fist in size. Occasionally the Cysticercus tenuicollis has 
been encountered in the lung tissue of the hog. In a fully grown state 
the bladders are connected by a long, thin neck, with a scolex, from which 
develops the Tcsnia marginata of the dog, after a change of host. The 
scolex contains four suckers and a double crown of 32-40 hooks. 

Extensive peritonitis is sometimes produced in hogs in cases of heavy 
invasion of the parasites beneath the folds of the abdominal serosa, result- 




Fio- 95- Coccidise in the various stages of de- 
velopment, from the bile duct of a rabbit's liver, 
a, b, small granular, young forms; c, d, larger 
forms with dark stained border granules; e, f, g, 
hj oval, encapsulated forms, the protoplasma of 
which fills up a portion of the capsule. (After 
Ziegler, x 400 diameters). 



ing in extensive adhesions of the abdominal organs. The dead cysticerci 
may be found in large numbers among the peritoneal folds as spherical, 
nodular or more flattened formations, ranging in size from millet seeds to 
hazelnuts, and composed of whitish to yellowish-brown caseous material 
with a membranoid envelope (the thickened serosa) . 

Usually the nature of the nodules is easily ascertained macroscopic- 
ally by making smears of the contents of the larger and softer caseous 
nodules, which should contain portions of the cysticercus membrane ; and 
microscopically by the presence of hooks and calcareous bodies. 

The calcareous concrements occasionally encountered in the muscula- 
ture of sheep may, according to the observations of Glage, be produced 
by the invasion of slender-necked cysticerci. 



Relatively quite young animals may harbor the parasite, as the development of 
the thin-necked bladder worm from the tapeworm ova occurs within 5-6 weeks. 
At this stage they lie, as a rule, beneath the serous membrane. In further develop- 
ment the bladder worms increase the protrusion of the serosa more and more, but 
always remain covered by it. In young animals which have recently ingested 



Parasitic Diseases of Organs 233 

numerous tapeworm ova, one occasionally encounters serpentine paths in the liver, 
filled with dark-red, brownish or greenish masses, which indicate the course trav- 
ersed b}' the bladder-worm embryos. Should the parasites remain within the inte- 
rior of the organs, especially the liver, they barely attain the size of a pea, and 
vapidly undergo cheesy and calcareous degeneration. 

Differential Diagnosis. — Although the slender-necked bladder worms 
never occur between the muscle fibers as matured parasites, they have, 
nevertheless, been confounded with true measles, when found as pea-sized 
vesicles in places where the serosa lie directly in contact with the muscu- 
lature (diaphragm, pillars of the diaphragm, abdominal, intercostal, and 
sternal muscles). Such errors do not occur when one — 

•I. Examines the favorite site of true measles (C. cellulosse or C. 
bovis), where the thin-necked measles never occur (tongue, larynx, heart 
musculature). If no measles are found there it is quite likely that the 
doubtful structure is not a true measle. 

2. Examines the scolex of the doubtful bladder worms microscop- 
ically, carefully noting the number and shape of the hooks. 

To avoid mistaking the caseous or calcified thin-necked bladder 
worms for tubercular areas it is essential to bear in mind the character- 
istic structure of the latter, and to ascertain the absence of infection of the 
lymphatic glands of the organ under consideration. 

(b) Cysticcrcus Pisiforinis 

The pea-shaped bladder worm (the larval stage of the Tceiiia serrata of the 
dog), is quite common in the lungs and liver, and especially prevalent in the serous 
lining of the thoracic and abdominal cavities of rabbits and hares. Sometimes they 
occur epizootically, and it is then spoken of as rabbit venery; and in some cases it 
is at times held to be tuberculosis, as caseation and calcification of the cysts occur 
within the organs. 

On Echinococci of serous membranes, see page 237. 

(c) Other Parasites 

Filaria equina, a round worm 6-15 cm. long, has been found free in the abdomi- 
nal cavity of horses; and Strongylus armatus (Kitt) has been found in the same 
animal. Migrating liver flukes may also find their way into the serous cavities 
and become attached to serous membranes. 

5, Parasites in the Brain 

Ccenurus cerehralis. — Cerebral bladder-worm cysts, filled with serous 
fluid, in sizes from that of a pea to as large as a hen's egg, occur in the 
brains of sheep, more rarely in cattle, and produce the so-called gid or 
stagSfers. 



234 Chap. VII. Abnormal Conditions and Diseases, etc. 

On the inner wall of the cysts are situated large numbers of millet-seed-sized 
whitish granules, the scolices, from which the Tcenia coenums of the dog is 
developed. 

The development of coenurus cysts lasts for two to two and a half months. 
The embryos, which have been set free from the ova in the digestive tract, are 
largely disseminated embolically. As early as 8-14 days after invasion there are 
found bluish-white cysts on the surface of the brain, these cysts having a diameter 
of 1-3 mm. and showing sulphur-yellow streaks. Similar streaks, indicating the 
path of the wandering onchospheres, may be also found in other organs, in which 
there are later observed spherical, encapsulated areas with greenish pus-like con- 
tents (cestodal-tuberculosis, pseudo-tuberculosis verminosa). These areas are 
transformed by calcification into fibrous-calciform nodules (chalicosis nodularis). 

Occasionally there are seen coenurus cysts (C. serialis) in the abdominal cavity 
and muscles of hares and rabbits. 

Other parasites occurring in the central nervous system, such as Cysticercus 
cellulosa, and CEstrns larvce are mentioned elsewhere. 

Regarding the judgment of parasitic organ affections, see page 222. 

B, Parasitic General Diseases 

1, Pentastomum Denticulatum 

The denticulate pentastome is the larval stage of the tapeworm-like 
five-mouth parasite (Peiifastomum s. Linguatula tcenioides), considered 
under parasites of the respiratory system (page 225), and inhabits the 
intestines, lymphatic glands, and the under surface of the serous mem- 
branes of cattle, sheep, goats, hogs, deer, rabbit, and hare. 

Development. — The young larvje escape from the ova ingested into the intes- 
tinal tract with food, pierce the intestinal wall, and enter the various organs actively 
or embolically, being most common in the liver, mesenteric, inguinal and iliac lym- 
phatic glands, also in lung, spleen, pleura and peritoneum. They become encysted, 
undergo various changes, and 6-7 months after invasion one finds the mature larva, 
P. denticulatum. It either dies or wanders actively through the peritoneal or pleu- 
ral cavities into the intestines or bronchi, in order to reach the beginning of the 
respiratory apparatus and thus escape. 

The larval invasion and its results produce millet-seed-sized white 
nodules, which lead one to suspect tuberculosis. In the lymphatic glands 
especially on the periphery, are formed irregular, millet-seed to hazel-nut 
sized areas of yellowish or greenish-gray color (Plate 11, Fig 4). The 
parasites occur within this caseous or mortar-like substance as whitish, 
flat larvfe, narrower posteriorly, of 6-8 mm. length, and an anterior width 
of 1.2 to 2 mm. The segmented body, covered with teeth-like thorns, is 
supplied with two pairs of hooks on either side of the mouth (Fig. 96). 
The latter are permanent and may be demonstrated microscopically when 
the pentastoma larvae die and decompose. 




Parasitic General Diseases 235 

Recognition or identification and false interpretation. — The recogni- 
tion of the larval site is not difficult if the places in question and the 
Imyphatic glands are cut open. They may be mistaken for tubercular 
areas if it is not recalled that — 

1. Tubercular areas do not occur 
in the peripheral zone of the lymphatic 
glands only, but also in their interior. 

2. Tubercular areas caseate from the 
center and are surrounded by a gray 
peripheral layer, whereas pentastomum 
areas possess a uniform caseous consist- 

enCy. ^^^^ I ' l> v ^ ^ yyvV/ ' VUV I' TTTT 

3. Caseous tubercular areas are yel- . ^ , , r~. 

Fig. 90. Head of Pentastomum 
low, while caseated pentastomum areas denticulatum, x 40 diam. (accord- 
give a greenish color (Plate II, Fig. 4). ing to Ziegler). 

4. In beginning calcification, tuberculous areas retain their yellow 
color ; the pentastomum areas on the contrary turn gray, and 

5. In pentastomum areas the larvae or their hooks are easily 
demonstrated. 

Judgment. — Direct transmission of the pentastoma larvae to man, 
through eating meat, is most improbable. The portions of meat showing 
a heavy infestation with P. denticulatum are not to be considered danger- 
ous to health, but at the most are to be designated as greatly impaired in 
value. If these parasites obtain a heavy invasion the parts or organs are 
to be removed as unfit for use, while isolated areas in valuable organs 
(liver) may be excised. 

[In the United States organs infested with P. denticulatum. are 
condemned.] 

The indirect harmfulness of the pentastoma larvae for man is shown 
by its relation to P. tcenioides of man and dog; and for this reason special 
care should be exercised to prevent dogs from eating organs infested with 
P. Denticulatum. 

Especially conscientious examination is required in pentastomatosis 
of body lymph glands to avoid mistaking it for tuberculosis. 

2. Echinococci 

Echinococci are bladder worms whose scolices are not situated imme- 
diately or directly on the inner surface of the cyst walls, but are sur- 
rounded by separate capsules (proligerous vesicles or daughter cysts), 
which are attached to the enveloping membrane by a pedicle, or exist free 
within the serous fluid which fills the cysts. 



236 



Chap. VII. Abnormal Conditions and Diseases, etc. 



Echinococci (Echinococctis polymorphns) occur in all animals used 
for slaughter ; most commonly, however, in sheep, hogs, and cattle. They 
form the asexual stage of Tcenia echinococcus, the three-segmented tape- 
worm of the dog (page 229), and occur in two forms as — 

(a) Echinococcus polymorphus s. unilocularis s. simplex, and 

(b) Echinococcus miiltil ocularis s. alveolaris. 

The development of echinococci results from the ova or onchospheres of the 
'Tcvnia. echinococcus after having reached the alimentary tract; and, according to 
recent observations by Mangold, Mueller, v. Linstow, Posselt, this taenia exists in 
the dog in two varieties, which externally, however, appear very similar. The dis- 
semination of the embryos from the intestines is mainly through the portal circula- 
tion, which accounts for the fact that the liver is the most common site of infesta- 




Fig. 97. Wall of an echinococcus cyst with brood capsules and scolices ; a, chitin 
membrane (cuticula) ; b, layer of parenchyma with cystic cells; c, daughter cysts; 
d, e, f, g, h, scoleces in various stages of development (according to Ziegler). x 
100 diameters. 

tion with developing echinococcus cysts. According to Leuckart the development 
is comparatively slow. White nodules of about one millimeter in size- may be seen 
four weeks after invasion, and after four more weeks the cystic nodules have only 
attained a size of 1.5-2.5 mm., with a central cavity containing fluid. • Only at the 
age of five months have they attained 15-20 mm. in size, and the first proligerous or 
daughter cysts with scolices are then formed. 



The echinococci degenerate easily and undergo caseation or calcifica- 
tion. The initial stage of this degeneration is a softening and fatty change 
of the parenchyma layer, and a transformation of the partly transudated 
echinococcic fluid into a sticky honey-like mass. In sheep the cyst wall 
may become cartilaginous, or it may even calcify. The scolices of the 
echinococci die as a result of the processes of degeneration. 



Parasitic General Diseases 237 

(a) Echinococcus polymorphus s. umlocularis s. simplex 

The simple echinococcus cyst may be the size of a pea or as large as 
a child's head, transparent or opaque, light-gray to pure white, appearing 
in all animals that are slaughtered, especially in sheep, hogs, and cattle. 
They are mainly found in the liver and lung, but they may also be present 
in all other organs of the body, even in the heart, bones, udder, brain, mus- 
cles. Of the organs infested with echinococci, the liver particularly may 
increase enormously in size and weight. 

The unilocular echinococci are constantly enclosed by a connective 
tissue capsule (organic membrane of Ostertag), resulting from the reac- 
tion of the immediately surrounding structures, and separating the para- 
site from the neighboring tissues of the organ. 

The true wall of the echinococcic cysts is composed of a laminated cuticula 
and a parenchymatotis la}'er in which calcareous bodies may be found. Should the 
parenchymatous layer remain smooth upon its inner surface the echinococcus will be 
found to contain only fluid, and is then called E. cystictts sterilis; this is the most 
common form, in slaughter animals. If proligerous vesicles (Fig. 98) develop from 
the parenchymatous layer, there is formed the E. fertilis, which is found most fre- 




Fig. 98. Closed and ruptured brood capsules with scolices in their connection with 
the parenchymatous layer of the cystic wall (according to Leuckart). x 40 
diameters. 

quently in hogs and sheep. A formation of the so-called daughter cysts, which have 
the same structure as the mother cyst, may result out of portions of the parenchymatous 
layer which have remained between the layers of the cuticula (M. Braun). Origi- 
nating in the substance of the cuticle, they distend the wall of the mother cyst, either 
outwardly (£. granulosus) or inwardly {E. hydatidosus) . In the latter case the 
daughter cysts may rupture the innermost layers of the wall of the mother cyst, be 
set free, and fall into the mother cyst. The early growing forms of the echinococci, 
according to Leuckart, appear as whitish bodies the size of sago seed, which, under 
the microscope, show a structureless enveloping membrane of granular formation 
within. 

(b) Echinococcus niultilocidaris s. alveolaris 

The many-chambered hydatid occurs as a tumor-like growth 
(Fig. 99) in the liver and lungs, especially in cattle. It has been found 



238 Chap. VII. Abnormal Conditions and Diseases, etc. 

occasionally in the spleen and kidneys and other organs in sheep, also in 
hogs, and in the latter species of animals it has been found in a form 
which differs from that in cattle, and is more like the alveolar echinococcus 
found in man (Ostertag). The multilocular echinococcus is composed of 
numerous small cysts or vesicles imbedded in a connective tissue network. 
The latter is delicate and thin in small echinococcus cysts, but in growing 
attains considerable thickness in the large forms. According to size and 
age, the individual vesicles of the multilocular echinococci are either soft 




Fig. 99. Section through liver of cow with Echinococcus multilocularis 

and elastic, with thin walls and filled with serous fluid, or gelatinous, 
caseated and calcified. The centers of the larger echinococci are usually 
of the latter consistency, while the peripheral layers are made of the 
former. The growth of the hydatid occurs by formation of new daughter 
cysts from the mother cysts, emerging from within, being freed by the 
connective tissue, and themselves forming mother cysts which, in their 
turn, send out daughter cysts toward the periphery. 

In other respects the single vesicle of the alveolar echinococcus is similar to the 
structure of the simple echinococcus ; but, according to v. Linstow, E. alveolaris has 
less hooks than E. cysticus (26 as compared with 36). That both are not identical 
biologically, and that two different varieties of echinococcus develop from these 
has been mentioned on page 229. 

The alveolar echinococcus found in the pleura of hogs by Ostertag gave the 
impression of a miliary pearl disease. The numerous millet-seed-shaped nodules 
were grayish-yellow, of firm consistency, and enclosed fresh and caseated hydatids 
containing scolices. 

The recognition of echinococci is not difficult as soon as they have 
become visible on the surface of the organs and have not degenerated. 
When deeply located within the organs, palpation of the latter will enable 
the perception of large cysts ; smaller ones, however, can only be ascer- 
tained upon section. The alveolar echinococcus and caseated or calcified 
simple echinococci may be mistaken for tuberculosis, if we fail to observe 
in echinococcus disease that — 



Parasitic General Diseases 239 

1. The lymph glands belonging to the organ are free of the infection. 

2. In the caseous or calcareous masses are contained delicate mem- 
branous remnants, the hull or enveloping membrane of the proligerous 
vesicles, or the remnants of the main membrane of the mother cyst. 

3. The cuticula of the echinococcus wall shows microscopically a 
banded or striped structure (Fig. 97). 

4. The caseated or calcified contents of unilocular cysts are easily 
removed from the surrounding smooth-walled connective-tissue capsule. 

In the jitdgment of echinococci it must be remembered that they are 
not transmissible to man through ingestion. The parasites themselves, 
however, are to be looked upon as objectionable formations, and whenever 
they are found in small numbers in any organ they should be carefully 
Excised, while the organ infested is to be cut in layers. When present in 
great numbers the organ becomes unfit for food, and is to be condemned. 

[According to. B. A. I. Order 150, Regulation 13, section 17, para- 
graph 3, the presence of an organ found infested with echinococcus cysts 
does not affect the wholesomeness of the meat, and the carcass may be 
passed for food after condemnation of the infested part or organ.] 

The importance of the echinococcus cyst to man lies in the easy transmission 
of the ova of Taenia echinococcus of the dog to man. This is proven by the fact 
that echinococcus disease in man is proportional to that of domestic animals in 
those localities in which the animal echinococci are not carefully removed, thus 
allovi^ing dogs to gain access to the tissues containing echinococci. The echi- 
nococcus cysts in man formed from the Taenia echinococcus of the dog are developed 
in the same way as in animals and almost in every case lead to severe disturbance 
of health and may even prove fatal. For this reason the careful removal of all 
echinococci through meat inspection is of the greatest sanitary value and 
importance. 

3, Measles 

The true measles of food-producing animals are the larval stages of 
two varieties of tapeworms in man. We have for consideration, there- 
fore, two corresponding forms of measles : 

(a) Cysticercus cellulosce, the pork measle. 

{h) Cysticercus hovis, the beef measle. 

The transition stage of a third tapeworm of man, found in the flesh 
of fish, namely, that of Bothriocephalus latus, will be considered in 
Chapter IX. 

The larval stages of the Bothriocephalus liguloides, which occur in man in 
Japan, according to Miyake, need not be considered here. The same is true of the 
hydatids of Tcenia krabbei, which Rusche reported in reindeer meat. The tape- 
worm in question is parasitic in dogs. The hydatids are somewhat smaller than 
hog measles, their scolex having 26-39 hooks of various sizes. 



240 Chap. VII. Abnormal Conditions and Diseases, etc. 

Generalities and Development. — The measles develop from the tape- 
Y\orm eggs which have gained access to the stomach of the respective host 
where they are freed from their covering. Either actively or passively 
the developing embryos gain access to all parts of the body, and form in 
the connective tissue of the body, especially in the striated musculature 
the so-called measles. These appear as round or oval, transparent, color- 
less to grayish-white vesicles, ranging in size from a millet-seed to a 
double-pea, and filled with a serous fluid. An invagination of the cyst 
wall, the site of the future tapeworm, shows the scolex as a whitish trans- 
lucent spot. The measles are separated from the surrounding tissues by 
the so-called bladder worm capsule, a delicate, connective tissue mem- 
brane, formed by the reaction of the cellular tissue. In microscopic 
examination of a cyst whose scolex has been extruded by gentle pres- 
sure between two glass plates, we observe four suckers, and sometimes 
crowns of hooks on the spherical or pear-shaped head (scolex). In the 
so-called neck we find numerous calcareous bodies and a cross-striation 
pointing to the future segments. The development of measles in ani- 
mals follows ingestion of tapeworm ova, whose onchospheres (embryos), 
supplied with hooks, are largely carried from the intestines to the widely 
divergent portions of the body (connective tissue of the body) by the 
blood stream. The measles, especially those of cattle, may at any stage 
of their development undergo degeneration — hypertrophy of the sac sur- 
rounding the measle, coagulation necrosis, caseation, suppuration, calcifi-' 
cation, and usually lose their capacity for further development, which is 
decided by the intactness of the scolex. If the latter cannot be demon- 
strated, or is easily crushed, the measles are no doubt dead. The via- 
bility of measles is limited, temperatures of 45-50° C. causing them 
to die ; a strong salt solution will also kill them in a short while. The 
measles survive the death of their host for several weeks. The fact that 
meat is spoiled does not necessarily mean death of the hydatids. 

Intrauterine infection of the fetus with embryos of measles, as some 
observations from practice would indicate, is not yet proven. 

(a) Cysticerciis Cellnlosce 

The measles of pork is the asexual transition or larval stage of the 
hermit tapeworm {Tccnia soliuni) of man. The bluish-white cysts of 
pork measles and the surrounding bladders are very thin ; througli them 
the invaginated scolex may be distinctly seen. The latter has four 
suckers and a rostellum with double crown, of 22-28 hooks (Fig. 100). 
which are absent in beef measles. 

Occurrence — Locality. — The pork measles are found particularly in 
the connective tissues of domestic and wild hogs ; rarely they are observed 



Parasitic General Diseases 



241 



in sheep, goat, dog, bear, cat, deer, buck, monkey, and man. The favorite 
site is the intermuscular tissue of the heart, tongue, larnyx, abdomen, 
diaphragm, flanks, masticatory, neck, sternum, intercostal muscles, and 
adductors of the hind legs. When infesta- 
tion is heavy they may be found in all 
muscles of the body, in the panniculus 
adiposus and in the brain ; very rarely in 
the lung and liver. In case of marked in- 
vasion the musculature is aqueous and dis- 
colored a grayish-red. When a heavy in- 
vasion occurs the measles may be recog- 
nized beneath the mucosa of the tongue in 
the living animal. 

Frequency. — The number of measly hogs has 
been decreasing steadily in Germany, thanks to 
meat inspection. The number of measly hogs 
is in general much larger in East Germany 
than in the west and south. 

According to the government meat inspec- 
tion statistics of the year 1904, measles were 
found in 0.25 per cent, of all slaughtered hogs 
in the German Empire. Infection is much Fig, joo. Scolex of the hog 

more common in hogs in Russia and Austro- measle. Squeeze preparation, x 
Hungary; Prettner, of Prag, found measles in 50 diameters. 
3.44 per cent, of the hogs in Austro-Hungary. 




The detection of measles is not difficult by careful examination of 
the above-mentioned favorite sites. The tongue muscles are always to be 
separated, and the heart should be laid open with a cut exposing both 
chambers and dividing wall. In doubtful cases a microscopic examina- 
tion is to be made. This will ascertain the presence or absence of the 
hooks and their number, etc. The latter remain intact even in caseous or 
calcified measles. 

In order to avoid error, one must bear in mind the thin-necked blad- 
der worm {Cysticercus tcnuicollis) , whose characteristics were described 
on page 232. From a differential diagnostic point of view, the following 
indications are especially to be observed : 

1. The thin-necked bladder worm is never situated intermuscu- 
larly; if present it will be found on the muscles which are covered with 
serous membranes (abdominal, diaphragmatic, intercostal and sternal 
muscles). 

2. In the isolated specimen of Cysticercus tenuicollis attention is 
called to the thin neck and the presence of more than 28 hooks (32-40) 
on the scolex. 



17 



242 



Chap. VII. Abnormal Conditions and Diseases, etc. 






Fig. loi Fig. 102 

Fig. lOl. Hooks of the hog measle 

Fig. 102. Hooks of the cysticercus tenuicollis 



3. The hooks of Cysticercus tenuicollis are more sickle-shaped ; those 
of Cysticercus cellulosce shaped more scythe-like (Fig. 102). Some of the 
smaller hooks of the former possess, in addition, a cleft or bifurcated basal 
process, which is not found in Cysticercus cellulosce (Schwarz). 
(Fig. loi.) 

Even small echinococci 
may most exceptionally oc- 
cur in the musculature in 
cases of unusually heavy 
infestation, but by bearing 
the characteristic signs of 
this parasite in mind, no 
difficulty should be en- 
countered in recognizing it. 
In order to differentiate 
between caseous and calcified measles, there come in question — 

1. Embolic suppurations in the muscles. 

2. Calcareous areas of degeneration. 

3. Calcified parasites (trichinae, echinococci, thin-necked bladder 
worms. 

These occurrences in the musculature not only seldom occur, but pre- 
sent such definite characteristic appearances in the area afifected that a 
careful examination will prevent mistaking them for measles. 

Judgment. — Measly pork in a raw or improperly cooked condition is 
harmful to man, inasmuch as the hermit tapeworm develops in man from 
the measle. This parasite, 2-3.5 ""■• i" length, is injurious to man — 

1. By causing disturbances of digestion and nervous symptoms, 
which may be present more or less markedly according to the individual 
susceptibility of the patient. 

2. By removal of foodstuffs (nutrition). 

3. By the danger of autoinfection with measles. 



The latter is effected by nncleanliness in defecation, or through antiperistalsis 
in which the ova or mature segments of the tapeworm may gain entrance into the 
stomach of the affected individual and reproduce in this way the same measle devel- 
opment as occurs in the regular way of change of host in the hog. But the develop- 
ment of this species in the human body is of especial gravity and danger, as it fre- 
quently appears in the cerebrum, spinal cord, and eyes, producing severe disturbance 
of health and even death. 



[According to B. A. I. Order 150, Regulation 13, section 17, para- 
graph I, carcasses afifected with Cysticercus cellulosce may be passed for 
lard unless the infestation is excessive, in which case the carcass is 
condemned.] 



Parasitic General Diseases 243 

Regulations.^ As already stated on page 240, measles may be made 
harmless by high temperature and strong salt solutions. For this reason 
measly pork may be iitilized for food, provided the infestation is not too 
heavy. Meat is considered strongly measly or heavily infested when the 
measles are present alive or dead in large numbers in areas as large as 
the palm of the hand, on section of muscles in the favorite location of the 
measles. This is the case, as a rule, when in the majority of the cut sur- 
faces there is found more than one measle in each section. 

Heavily infested measly meat possesses characteristics which inqur a 
general disgust and makes the meat unfit for food. The same is true 
when the meat, without being heavily infested with measles, is acjueous 
or discolored. 

Anent the utility of measly meat, the true musculature, the meat in a 
restricted sense, is to be considered separate from the fat and the viscera. 
Measles rarely occur in the fat and in the viscera, nor are either of these 
used for food in the raw state. Special regulations, therefore, apply to 
these. 

Lightly infested measly meat (Cysticerciis ccUulosce) may be made 
harmless by the following methods : 

1. Thorough Boiling. — Inasmuch as a temperature over 49° C. 
destroys measles^ thoroughly boiled pork which assumes a grayish-white 
color throughout even in the thickest portions, and in which the juice 
emanating on section is no longer red, is to be considered harmless. 

2. Pickling — Salting. — If pork has been thoroughly salted for 2 to 3 
weeks the measles will be destroyed with certainty. 

3. Freezing — Refrigeration. — After large pieces of pork have been 
kept for four days at a temperature 8-10° C. below zero the measles con- 
tained therein will be found dead. This method has, however, not been 
accepted or incorporated into the legal regulations. 

The method of killing beef measles, described on page 245, that is, by sufficiently 
long preservation of the meat, cannot be employed in pork measles, as they have 
been found viable 42 days after the death of the host (Ostertag). 

For inspection regulations, see page 246. 

(b) Cysticercns Inermis s. Bovis 

The beef measle is the asexual intermediate or larval stage of the 
tapeworm Tcenia saginata s. T. Mediocanellata s. T. inermis of man. The 
usually oval, grayish-white vesicles contain the scolex which may be 
seen within the cyst. The scolex contains four suckers, but no crown of 
hooks. Numerous calcareous (small) bodies may be seen microscopically 
in the neck of the scolex. The size (diameter) of the measles varies, 
according to Kaeppel, between 5 and 19 mm. in length and 3-8.5 mm. 
in width. 



244 



Chap. VII. Abnormal Conditions and Diseases, etc. 



Ostertag was the first to establish the fact that numerous measles 
may become completely disintegrated and be absorbed later. This explains 
the excess of infestation in younger cattle. 

Processes of degeneration are much more common in beef measles than 
in pork measles, and may appear at any stage of development. Measles 
of the viscera, masticatory muscle and tongue muscle are most suscep- 
tible to degeneration and the processes "of 
caseation are frequently recognized by their 
green color. If the scolex has also been de- 
stroyed in these regressive metamorphoses, 
and is not demonstrable microscopically, the 
measles are without doubt dead. 

Occurrence — Prevalence. — Beef measles 
occur relatively seldom in suckling calves, 
more frequently in older calves and beeves 
in the intermuscular connective tissue, usu- 
ally in small numbers. Sites of predilection 
are the inner (M. pterygoid, medial, et 
lateral.) and outer (M. masseter) muscles 
of mastication, heart and tongue muscles. 
Next in order are the muscles of the dia- 
phragm, diaphragmatic pillars, esophagus, 
larynx, thorax, intercostals, and rump mus- 
cles ; and, in fact, they are found in all the 
muscles of the body, but their distribution is 
very irregular. We may suddenly come 
upon nests of measles in the center of a 
large uninfested area. In severe or heavy invasion the lungs, liver, brain, 
lymphatic glands and fatty tissue are also affected, but measles have been 
found in these organs or regions in isolated numbers, in even very slight 
infestation. 

Frequency.— According to the Government meat-inspection statistics for the year 
1904, measles occurred in the German Empire in 3.2 of every 1,000 head of cattle 
slaughtered, as follows: 5.13 steers, 6.03 bulls, 1.67 cows, 3.21 young beeves, and 
0.024 calves. 

C. hovis does not occur in reindeer meat, but the armed measles of Taenia 
krabhei are found there, as has been mentioned on page 239. 

In order to detect beef measles it is absolutely necessary to make 
several cuts into the inner and outer muscles of mastication, to inspect 
carefully the tongue musculature, also to inspect carefully the heart exter- 
nally and internally after laying open the chambers and cutting through 
the dividing wall. It is understood that all other surfaces as well as cut 
surfaces of the remaining muscles be inspected for beef measles. The 




Fig. 103. Scolex of the cattle 
measle. x 50 diameters. 



Parasitic General Diseases 



245 



discovery of doubtful formations and degenerated measles requires a 
microscopical examination. 

Regarding the likelihood of mistaking beef measles for similar 
structures, we would refer to the points presented on page 241 in con- 
nection with pork measles. The special morphologic characteristics of 
beef measles are always to be borne in mind. 

Judgment. — Raw, measly beef is to be viewed as injurious to man, as 
the 4-6 meter long Tcenia saginata is developed in man from the ingested 
beef measle. The effect of infestation in man is the same as that of infe€- 
tation with Tcenia solium, as mentioned on page 242, with the exception 
of the danger of autoinfection, which has not been observed in the hosts 
of Tcenia saginata. 



Legal regulations for inspection of slaughter animals infested with measles 

injurious to health 



Fiading 



1. Heavy infestation with 
measles. (Measles occur, 
alive or dead, in a large 
number of the prescribed 
muscle sections or the 
meat is aqueous or discol- 
ored without regard to the 
grade of measle infestation.) 



2. Slight infestation with 
measles. (AH cases of 
finding live measles with ex- 
ception of heavy infestation 
with measles, etc., as under 1, 
and of one-measled infes- 
tation as under 3.) 



3. One measled. (a) Only 
one measle (live) has been 
found, even after examina- 
tion of the animal body 
upon section into pieces of 
about 2.5 kg. 



(b) On prescribed examina- 
tion for measles only one 
live measle has been found, 
and the meat has been kept 
in the cooling or refriger- 
ating room for 21 days. 



Judging of the meat 



Hogs, sheep, goats 



The whole body is 



unfit for food 
exceptions: 



with the following 



Fat, liver, spleen, kidneys, j Liver, spleen, kidneys, stom- 
stomach and intestines, | ach, and intestines, 

are fit for food when careful examination has shown them 
to be free of measles; otherwise 



the fat is to be used under 
certain conditions, and the 
other organs are unfit for 
food. 



the organs are unfit for food. 
The fat is considered ad- 
missible, provisionally. 



The entire animal body may be 
restrictions. 



utilized with certain 



The fat, liver, spleen, kid- 
neys, stomach and Intes- 
tines 



Liver, spleen, kidneys, stom- 
ach, and intestines 



are fit for food if found free of measles upon careful 
inspection 

I Fat is always fit, condltion- 
1 ally. 

The meat is to be excised at the site where the measle is 
situated and this portion is unfit for food. 

The fat, liver, spleen, kid- I Liver, spleen, kidneys, stom- 
neys, stomach, and intes- ach, and intestines 
tines I 

are to be considered fit for food without cutting them Into 

sections if upon proper inspection they have been found 

free of measles. Nor is thorough cooling required. 

The other meat Is impaired I The other meat, inclusive of 
in value. the fat, is impaired in 

I value. 
As under 3a. 

The other meat is fit for 
food without restrictions. 



Dog 



246 Chap. VII. Abnormal Conditions and Diseases, etc. 

Regulations. — As the beef measle is much more easily killed than 
the pork measle, measly beef may be made fit for hnman food, provided 
it is only slig'htly infested (the infestation is not heavy) (see page 243), 
by boiling- thoronghly, or salting, or freezing, or preserving it for suffi- 
cient length of time (cooling it thoroughly). The first three methods 
have already been discussed under pork measles, page 243. The admis- 
sion of so-called one-measled beeves (einfinnigen Kinder) as human food, 
without previous destruction of the measles, is a regulation in favor of 
commercial interest against which weighty sanitary considerations will 
not prevail. 

As concerns thorough cooling of the meat and its efifect on the 
vitality of the measles under proper preservation of the meat, numer- 
ous experiments have shown that the beef measle survives its host 18-20 
days at the outside. 

If, therefore, slightly infected beef be kept in the prescribed man- 
ner (refrigerating rooms) for at least three weeks, it may be admitted to 
the trade in the raw state without incurring any risk of infestation. 

[The regulation to B. A. I. (3rder 150, applying to the infestation of 
pork with Cysticcrcus ccllitloscc, which was quoted on page 242, applies 
also to infestation of beef with Cysticcrcus boi'is.] 

4, Trichinosis 

Trichinosis is due to Trichina spiralis, a roundworm inhabiting the 
muscles (muscle trichina), which is. however, not a sexually mature indi- 
vidual, but the asexual larval state of the intestinal trichina whose habitat 
is in the intestines. 

Generalities and Development. — The intestinal trichina is a round- 
worm belonging to the family Trichotrachelidse, according to Schneider, 
of the Holomyarife, existing in both sexes, and found in the adult state 
in the small intestines of man and various mammals. The males attain a 
length of 1.5 mm., are 0.04 mm. thick, and possess two caudal appen- 
dages (sexual spicules). The females are 3-4 mm. long and 0.06 mm. 
thick. 

Characteristic of the morphology of the trichina is its pointed anterior 
and the blunt posterior extremity of the body, as well as of the internal 
organs, the so-called "cell body," a row of large nucleated cells which lay 
in the anterior half of the body around the esophagus. 

The trichina occurs in carnivorous and omnivorous animals, of which 
the following deserve special mention : Domestic and wild hog, dog, rat, 
fox, badger, marten, polecat, bear, cat : it may be transmitted to a number 



Parasitic General Diseases 



247 



of other mammals by feeding, but cannot be 
transmitted to birds or cold-blooded animals. 
Muscle trichinse do not develop in birds, but in- 
testinal trichinae may occur. 

The actual main host of the trichina, no doubt, 
is the rat ; and these animals readily transmit the 
infestation to each other. Animals which prey 
on, or occasionally eat rats, may become infested 
from them (hog, dog, cat, bear, marten, polecat), 
and the trichina contained in their meat can again 
reinfest the rats. Trichina may also be trans- 
mitted through the ingestion of feces of animals 
•which have eaten trichinous meat, but not from 
the fact that intestinal trichinze are thus trans- 
mitted, but because the feces contained undi- 
gested trichinosed meat (Ostertag). 

Development of the TrichincB. — Upon the inges- 
tion of meat containing trichinse. the latter are 
freed through digestion of the parasitic sacs and 
their surrounding capsules and develop to sexu- 
ally mature worms in the intestinal tract. While 
the males die shortly after impregnating the fe- 
male and are digested and discharged with the 
feces, the females penetrate into the glands of 
Lieberkiihn of the intestinal mucous mem- 
brane, with their anterior extremity, and deposit 
their young. During the six to seven weeks of 
life each female gives birth to 1,500 to 2,000, ac- 
cording to Braun even 8,000 to 10,000, embryos 
of 0.1 mm. in length, which are carried into the 
blood by the intestinal lymph stream. The blood 
carries them to all parts of the body, and in this 
way they gain access to the striated muscular tis- 
sues in which they locate exclusively, the heart 
excepted. Trichina embryos in other tissues and 
organs of the body die. In the further develop- 
ment of trichina embryos in the striated muscles, 
they emerge from the capillaries partly by diape- 
desis, partly by boring through the wall, and en- 
ter the sarcolemma sheath. As early as the 7th to 
8th day after ingestion of trichinosed meat there 

may be found the first wandering embryos in the musculature. The 
embryos which wander within the muscle sheath to the bony or tendonous 



Fig. 104. Adult trichi- 
nae. A, male ; B, female 
(after Leuckart). x 120 
diameters. 



248 



Chap. VII. Abnormal Conditions and Diseases, etc. 




insertions of the muscle fibers destroy the contractile contents of the 
muscle sheath, which lose their striation and at first assume a homogene 
ous, then a granular appearance. Finally the embryos become quiescent 
and roll up, spirally, within the sarcolemma. This terminates the migra- 
tion of the embryos, which have attained a length of i mm., and three 
weeks after ingestion of trichinosed meat have become muscle trichinae. 
The characteristics of the muscle trichina, which has no sexual apparatus, 

is the anterior pointed and 
the posterior blunt (body) 
extremity, the cell-body, 
and its situation within the 
muscle sheath. The en-- 
cystment of the muscle 
trichina soon begins, form- 
ing capsules of a lemon- 
shaped form, whose longi- 
tudinal axis corresponds to 
that of the muscle fibers. 
The first signs of the cap- 
sules may be observed dur- 
ing the 5th week following 
infestation; and 9 to 12 
weeks thereafter one will 
find fully developed capsules everywhere. The capsule itself is structure- 
less, homogeneous, shiny, possesses a double contour, and is transparent 
in the beginning. Fat cells form at the poles of the capsules within the 
muscle sheath, and at the end of three months lime salts also appear. The 
latter gradually encrust the entire capsule and sometimes the trichina 
itself. The calcification of the capsule may be complete at the ninth 
month, but usually takes 18 months. Muscle trichinae may remain active 
within the capsule for many years (they have been found alive for 31 
years in man). 

Historical. — The first one to name trichina was Owen, who gave a more detailed 
account in 1835 of a worm which had been found in the same year by Paget, of 
London, encysted in the musculature of man. The muscle trichina was found in 
hogs by Leidy, of Philadelphia, in 1847. In 1850 Herbst, of Gottingen, made the 
first experiments at transmission of trichina; he infected a badger with the encap- 
sulated trichina of a dog, and with the meat of the former infected two dogs. The 
importance of trichina to man was recognized in 1869, by Zenker, of Dresden, who 
found sexually mature trichinae in the intestines of a gir] who had died from 
typhoid; and also found recent unencapsulated muscle trichinae in the musculature. 
He was enabled to prove that the girl had eaten of pork which had been found by 



Fig. 105. Encapsulated muscle trichinae (after 
Leuckart). x 60 diameters. 



Parasitic General Diseases 249 

him to be heavily infested with trichinae. In view of this discovery some of the 
most important observers studied the trichina, and the Hfe cycle of this worm was 
established by Leuckart, Virchow, Fiedler, Haubner, et al. The biological condi- 
tion of the trichina received further attention later by Heitzmann, Cerfontaine, 
Geisse, Askanazy, Chatin, Graham, Staeubli, etc. 

The great danger of trichina to man was demonstrated scientifically for the 
first time in the epidemics of trichinosis at Hettstedt (1863), when 160 persons 
became infested and 28 died, and at Hedersleben (1865), where 337 cases occurred 
with loi deaths. In the years following numerous observations of small and large 
epidemics were made in the most widely divergent portions of Central and North 
Germany. , 

The distribution of trichinae in the musculature is not uniform. They 
are found in greatest numbers in the diaphragmatic pillars and the dia- 
4)hragmatic muscles, which Heitzmann explains by the arrest of the 
embryos at the moment of muscular contraction, as this causes a transitory 
contraction or narrowing of the capillary diameter. In view of the con- 
stant activity of the respiratory muscles, this heavy infestation of trichina 
should not be surprising. Next in order of frequency of invasion are the 
tongue, laryngeal muscles, lumbar, masticatory and abdominal muscles. 
Specimens for examination should therefore be taken from the above- 
stated muscles of the hog. If careful microscopic examination of the 
diaphragmatic pillar, diaphragmatic, laryngeal, and tongue muscles ha? 
failed to reveal any trichinae, it may be assumed that the remaining mus- 
culature does not harbor any parasites either; should isolated specimens 
occur in the remaining musculature, the ingestion of this meat is never 
followed by any deleterious results. Trichinae do not occur in fat; sides 
of bacon may contain them should muscle tissue be adherent, especially 
the skin muscles. 

The frequency of trichinosis in hogs is variable and does not give rise to 
any characteristic symptoms in these animals. By far the greater number of trichi- 
nosed hogs of Germany come from the eastern portion of the Empire. In the King- 
dom of Prussia 0.005 P^i" cent, of hogs examined in 1904 were found affected. The 
same ratio was obtained in the Kingdom of Saxony during 1901-1905, whereas in 
1891-1900, o.oi per cent, of all slaughtered and inspected hogs showed trichinous 
infection. Trichinosis among hogs in Germany is therefore gradually decreasing. 
In Saxony it was found that hogs imported from Austria-Hungary contained more 
infection than those at home. Pork from America has been found trichinous in 
4-8 per cent, of the cases, according to our observations [observations made in Ger- 
many. In the United States the percentage of trichinous hogs found by the 
trichina inspectors after examining thousands of carcasses averaged about 2 per 
cent, yearly.] Among 1,177 dogs slaughtered in Chemnitz during 1897-1900, 
13=1.11 per cent, were found trichinosed. In the whole Kingdom of Saxony, in 
1906, among 3,603 slaughtered dogs 8 (0.222 per cent.) were found infested with 
trichinae. 

In order to elicit the origin of infested hogs the Imperial Chancellor has insti- 
tuted compulsory trichina inspection in the various states which traces the origin of 



250 Chap. VII. Abnormal Conditions and Diseases, etc. 

every infested animal and reports accordingly to the Reichsamt of the interior which 
in turn informs the affected sections of the allied states of the presence of trichina 
in hogs coming from their district. 

A careful microscopic examination is necessary in order to recognize trichina 
in the meat ; a magnification of 30 is best. 

A careful examination for trichina of suckling pigs, wild hogs, dogs, and bears, 
according to the directions laid down, is also of importance owing to the prevalance 
of trichina in man, of which Opalka has recentij'' presented interesting tables, see 
page 147. 

Diluted acetic acid (1:30) may be added to preparations of indistinct, not 
entirely fresh meat, for the purpose of clearing it ; diluted potassium hydrate solution 
may be added to salted meat or ham to aid swelling of the muscle fibers. 

In the examination of hog meat, the specimens should always be 
taken in hams, etc., from the bones ; that is, at the tendonous insertions of 
the muscles. The examination of sausage is naturally of doubtful value. 

For the compulsory federated trichina inspection among the allied 
states of the German Empire see page 147. 

The following may be confounded with muscle trichinse in their 
various stages of development : Calcareous, concretions ( see page 203 ) , 
Miescher's bodies (see page 252), specific muscle degeneration of the 
hog (see page 203), and crystals of tyrosin (ham) ; their characteristics 
on careful examination will, however, prevent mistakes. Vinegar eels 
may accidently gain access to the preparation, but these are easily rec- 
ognized by their active serpentine movements. They are also almost 
twice as large as muscle trichinse, and will be found in the fluid which 
has been added, rarely between the muscle fibers. Worms, similar to 
embroys of Stroiigylns paradoxus, have been foiTnd in preparation for 
inspection for trichina (Wallman, Georges, Tiemann). They may hap- 
pen to gain access as the result of cutting the lungs of the hog, and in 
this way get into the microscopic preparation. 

In addition to the facts above mentioned there have been found trichina-like 
worms (so-called pseudo-trichinae) in the musculature of various animals (rat, 
rabbit, mouse, fowl, fish, mole). With any care in examination, these are not at all 
likely to be mistaken for trichinae. These roundworms never occur in the muscle 
<:hcat!is. possess no cell-body, and taper at both ends. In the case of capsule 
formation they will be found not of the peculiar structure of the trichinae capsule, 
but of connective tissue-like formation. 

For details regarding Pseudo-trichinae see Johne "Der Trichinenschauer." 

Judgment. — Trichinosed meat is injurious to health as its ingestion 
causes trichinosis resulting fatally in 10 to 40 per cent, of the cases. The 
disease may occur epidemically when meat heavily infested with trichinse is 
dispensed in numerous small portions at one time. It is to be presiuned, 
however, that the trichinosed meat has been eaten in the raw state in an 
imperfectly cooked condition, or as slightly smoked ham or sausages. 



Parasitic General Diseases 251 

The muscle trichinae do not resist very strenuously the usual methods 
of preparation of meats. Temperatures of plus 62-70° C. kill the 
parasites by coagulation of the albumen. Salting or pickling of the meat 
will not kill the trichinae in the surface layers in less than 14 days, and 
those in the deeper tissues will require 4 to 6 weeks for their extermina- 
tion. Hot smoke is effective, partly through the heat, partly through the 
cresols of the smoke, thus destroying the trichinae ; but the process is 
rather a slow one in large pieces of meat. 

In decaying meat and under the influence of low temperatures (minus 
15-20° C), the muscle trichinae retain their vitaHty for weeks. Wandering 
trichinae embryos are harmless, and muscle trichinae continue their development in 
another host only after the development of the site of the sexual parts and having 
attained a body length of 0.5 to 0.75 mm. 

Trichinosed meat of wild hogs, dogs, and bear is to be judged the same as that 
of domestic hogs; examination for trichinae is absohitely essential before the meat 
is to be used for food. 

Regulations. — Inasmuch as infested meat can be rendered harmless 
quite easily by the action of high degrees of temperature, there is no rea- 
son why trichinosed meat should be withdrawn from the food supply of 
man. And the judgment on the fat, in which trichinae do not occur, will 
be more favorable even than that of the muscles. For similar reasons 
as in measles it will be necessary to distinguish between slightly and heav- 
ily infested meat. The latter is the case when microscopic examination 
of six preparations taken from the pillars of the diaphragm, and the costal 
portions of the diaphragm, the laryngeal and tongue muscles (24 speci- 
mens in all, six of each) shows trichinae in nine or more of the preparations. 
While the strongly trichinous muscle meat, as well as trichinous dog 
meat, is to be considered unfit for use in every case, slightly trichinous 
meat, inclusive of the fat of the strongly trichinous hogs, may be consid- 
ered fit^ with certain restrictions. 

Legal Regulations for Rendering Decisions 

In the presence of trichinae there is to be viewed: 

1. As unfit — 

(a) the entire body of the hog. 

(b) the entire body, exclusive of the fat, of strongly trichinosed hogs. 

2. As conditionally fit — 

(a) the entire animal body in slightly trichinosed hogs. 

(b) the fat of the hogs coming under i b. 

The removal or destruction of unfit trichinosed meat may be done 
only by the employment of high degrees of temperature or by chemically 
effecting a dissolution of the soft parts. 



252 Chap. VII. Abnormal Conditions and Diseases, etc. 

5, General Diseases Produced by Protozoa 
(a) Sarcosporidiosis 

Of the sarcosporidia, which cause sarcosporidiosis, one genus inhabits 
the muscle fibers (Miescheria) and another is found in the connective 
tissue (Balbiania). 

I. Miescher's Bodies. — The Miescher's or psorospermial bodies, 
which, according to Blanchard, may be subdivided into the genera Mies- 
cheria and Sarcocystis are found in the musculature of hogs, sheep, horses, 
cattle, goats, dogs, deer, antelope, rabbits and chickens. They are com- 
posed of straight, faintly spindle-shaped structures of 3 mm. length and 
a width of 0.006 to 0.4 mm., and lie within the contractile contents of the 
striated muscle fibers. 

General Development. — The Miescher's bodies are composed of a 
delicate enveloping membrane, sending delicate fasciculi into the interior. 
The latter is filled with spherical kidney or sickle-shaped bodies (sporo- 




Fig. 106. Sacs of Miescher from hog muscles ; a, b, longitudinal and transverse 
section of muscle, x 60 diam. ; c, longitudinal section of muscle, x 380 diam. 
(after Ziegler). 

zoites, Rainey's bodies), which are probably without a surrounding- 
sheath, but nucleated. The sporozoites may decompose and form a gran- 
ular detritus ; quite commonly there occurs calcification of the psoroperms. 
In what manner and in what form these parasites gain access to the ani- 
mal body is as little known as is their development in the animal body, 
which probably is of an embolic nature. 

Lesions. — The sacs of Miescher (Sarcocystis miescheriana) occur in 
the striated muscles of the hog, but are found most frequently in the 
abdominal and diaphragmatic muscles. The large sacs, especially when 



Parasitic General Diseases 253 

calcified, may be seen macroscopically as light gray, pointed or tapering 
oblong dots in the dark musculature, but the smaller ones cannot be found 
without the aid of the -microscope. They are found to be peculiarly 
granulated structures within the otherwise unchanged muscle fiber 
(Fig. 106). In the smaller sacs, and with a high magnification, the thor- 
oughly preserved striation of the muscles fibers may be made out along- 
side of the parasite. After calcification has occurred the sac will appear 
as a more or less opaque, almost black structure macroscopically. Of the 
muscles of sheep, the abdominal and skin muscles are most frequently 
inhabited, and here very large Miescher's bodies (Sarcocystis tenella) 
obtain. Small microscopic sacs may occur in other muscles also. Not 
mfrequently macroscopic Miescher's sacs {Sarcocystis bertrami) are 
found in the neck and esophageal muscles of the horse. The Miescher's 
bodies (Sarcocystis blanchardi) are not common in cattle in this country 
and may be recognized by their millet-seed to barley-seed size of yellowish- 
green appearance. 

• Miescher's bodies, when in the calcified state, may be confounded 
with the so-called calcareous concretions (lime deposits) (see page 203) ; 
and, in the hog, with calcified trichinae (see page 248). In both cases the 
addition of acetic acid will remove the calcification, and the microscopic 
examination will reveal the substratum of the calcification. 

Jiidginciit. — The very fact that the presence of Miescher's sacs in 
the muscles does not irritate the latter, nor produce any symptoms of dis- 
ease in the animals, would lead us to conclude that these are harmless 
parasites. They have not yet been positively described as having been 
found in man ; nor has their transmission through ingestion of meat been 
observed. 

The report by Bee! of a disagreeably sweetish odor of the meat in 
the case of a hog heavily infested with sarcosporidia, has not been verified 
by other authors. 

Regulations. — The utility of the meat infested with Miescher's bodies 
depends on the appearance of the meat and the intensity of the infestation. 

If the meat does not show infestation macroscopically it may be used 
with impunity. If the calcified sacs are visible macroscopically, and if they 
are present in large numbers in all the muscles, or if the meat (muscula- 
ture) shows greenish or yellowish spots, or if it is aqueous, then the 
entire carcass, exclusive of the fat, is to be condemned. If the changes 
are confined to certain muscles (sheep, cattle) these are to be condemned. 
In intermediate grades of infestation of the meat with these parasites the 
meat is to be admitted to the trade, but considered as inferior meat. 

In the cases of infestation with Miescher's bodies in which the meat 
has been condemned, the fat is to be rendered ; in all other cases it is to 
be treated as the meat is treated. 



254 Chap. VII. Abnormal Conditions and Diseases, etc. 

2. Balbianid^. — The Balbianidse are designated as psorospermial 
Douches as compared with the psorospermic bodies of Miescher. They 
occur in the esophagus of sheep, goats, horses, cattle, buff alos, and deer, 
often in large numbers. They are found more rarely 
in the tongue, laryngeal, thoracic, abdominal and eye 
muscles and in the heart. On account of their size 
Railliet named them Balbiani gigantea. 

Lesions — Finding. — In the intermuscular connective 
tissue of the esophagus are found millet-grain to 
hazelnut sized yellowish-white cysts, with suppurative 
contents, composed mainly of sporozoites (Fig. 107). 
Judgment. — On account of their objectionable con- 
sistency all muscle parts inhabited by Balbianidse are 
to be condemned. 

(b) Heniosporidiosis 

I. PiROPLASMOSis. — Piroplasmoses are diseases of 
the blood occasioned by protozoa of the genus Piro- 
plasnia or Pirosoma. The transmission of these para- 
sites is effected through the medium of ticks (in Eu- 
Fig. 107. Esoph- rope Ixodes rednvius [/. ricimis], in other places 
bf]Wa°nidcr^^ "^'^^ Rhipicephalus or Margaropns [Boophilns] species). 

(a) Piroplasnwsis of cattle. — This epizootic or iso- 
lated, sometimes acute, but more often chronic disease, is produced by the 
Piroplasma higemimmi {Pirosoma higem. Smith and Kilborne, Apiosoma 
bigem. Wallondeck Peron, I.ridioplasma higem. Schmidt). 

Pathogenesis. — The parasites on gaining access to the blood by trans- 
mission through ticks, occasion destruction of the red blood corpuscles oi 
cattle. This results in hemoglobinemia ; and in severe destruction hemo- 
globinuria and icterus are caused. The cell detritus causes emboli, hemor- 
rhages, and parenchymatous nephritis. After considerable increase in the 
number of parasites fever sets in. In some cases death from asthenia 
occurs as the result of the disturbances of nutrition and rapid decrease of 
the erythrocytes. 

Symptoms — Lesions.- — In the living animal there may be present symp- 
toms of fatigue, emaciation, fever of 40-42° C, disturbed rumination, 
and in the beginning one may observe irritation and even attacks of mad- 
ness. There is retention of fecal matter and colic ; later thin stools, with 
mixture of mucus and blood. The milk secretion is diminished. Later 
there follow muscular tremors, uncertain gait, swelling of superficial 
lymph glands, reddening of the mucous membranes, which subsequenth^ 
become pale and icteric, lachrymation, urine at first reddish, later getting 



Parasitic General Diseases 255 

darker and darker, foaming considerably. It is fatal in 4 to 5 days in 
unfavorable cases. In the lighter forms of the disease improvement 
occurs about the middle of the first week of the disease, the fever dimin- 
ishes, but convalescence is as a rule very slow. 

In the slaughtered animal one finds, according to the stage of the 
disease, catarrhal stomach and intestinal inflammation with small hemor- 
rhages and erosions ; hypertrophy of the liver, the latter being flabby, 
lusterless, faintly reddish-brown, and permeated by yellowish bands and 
spots ; the spleen is considerably enlarged, the pulp highly injected and 
softened; urinary bladder is filled with light to dark red urine; the mucous 





Fig. 108. Piroplasma bigeminum. Typical ring and pearl-shaped forms. The 
upper row stained with alkahne methylene blue ; the lower according to Romanow- 
sky (after Kossel and Weber from Hutyra and Marek). 



membrane shows numerous hemorrhages ; there is cloudy swelling of the 
kidneys ; hemorrhages in the serous membranes ; the blood is light red 
and thin ; icterus is present in some cases. 

The recognition of the disease is facilitated during life by finding 
the parasites on microscopic examination of the blood. 

Dried cover-glass preparations are fixed in absolute alcohol, or in a 
mixture of equal parts of alcohol and ether, and stained with a i per cent, 
aqueous solution of methylene blue. 

In the difi^erential diagnosis we must consider anthrax, hemorrhagic 
septicemia, and hematuria ; the symptoms in these diseases, as well as 
their bacteriologic findings, differ in important features from those of 
piroplasmosis. 

The judgment will depend on the grade of the disease and on the 
fact that this affection is not transmissible to man by ingestion of the 
meat. " In severe cases of the disease the meat is to be condemned ; in 
lighter forms the question of inferior value will have to be considered. 



256 Chap. VII. Abnormal Conditions and Diseases, etc. 

[Carcasses affected with Texas fever should be condemned, according 

to B. A. I. Order 150, Regulation 13, section 14.] 

Of the more important piroplasmoses should be mentioned : 

I. Texas fever of cattle, which occasions tremendous losses in the 

United States of North America, and has necessitated the law preventing 

importation of American cattle. 





Fig. 109 Fig. no 

Fig. 109. Piroplasma bigeminum. Round and pear-shaped forms. Cattle blood. 
Stained with methylene blue (after Hutyra and Marek). 

Fig. no. Piroplasma bigeminum. Rod-shaped forms. Cattle blood. Stained 
according to Laveran (after Hutyra and Marek). 



Diseases of cattle similar in their intensity and rate of mortality to 
Texas fever occur in German East Africa, Hungary (forest disease), 
Roumania (epizootic hemoglobinuria), Italy (malaria of cattle), Sardinia 
(hematuria), Finland, Turkey, Argentine Republic (tristeza), Australia 
(tick fever), South Africa (redwater, or coast fever). 

2. Infectious hemoglobinuria of cattle (enzootic bloody urine), 
occurs sporadically in Germany as well as enzootically. It differs from 
Texas fever by a longer period of incubation and a milder course. 

3. The South African horse malaria (Geglielmi, Rickmann), which 
is frequently associated with a separate and distinct enzootic disease of 
horses, described by Theiler. 

4. Carceag or parasitic ictero-hematuria of sheep in Roumania, 
which also occurs in other countries (malarial catarrhal fever). 

5. Malignant jaundice of dogs in France, Hungary, Italy, Africa, 
and India (malignant malarial fever, malignant protozoan jaundice). 

2. Trypanosoma. — (a) Surra, tsetse-fly disease or nagana of cattle 
(gall sick, Theiler) camels, horses (Mai de caderas), and elephants in 



Infectious Diseases of Food Animals, etc. 



257 




Fig. III. Trypanosoma 
equinum s. Elmassiani. Guinea 
pig blood (after Hutyra and 
Marek). 



Africa and India are caused by flagellate 
infusoria (trypanosomes), and are without 
importance in meat inspection. 

(b) The investigations of Schneider and 
Buffard indicated that dourine of horses 
must also be classified as a protozoan dis- 
ease and the results of these investigators 
were confirmed by Nocard who found that 
a trypanosoma was the cause of the disease. 
At the present time this disease is of no 
importance from a sanitary police stand- 
point. 



6, Infectious Diseases 

A. Infectious Diseases of Food Animals Transmissible to Man 



1, Tuberculosis 

Tuberculosis occurs among all food-producing animals, and is the 
disease with which the veterinary inspector is mostly occupied. Etiolog- 
ically it is identical with tuberculosis of man, and is caused by the tuber- 
cle bacillus discovered by Koch in 1882. The disease in animals runs a 
chronic course. 

Pathogenesis. — The development of the disease requires a certaui 
predisposition in the body which affords favorable colonizing conditions 
for the entering tubercle bacilli. The disease may, according to the mode 
of infection, become established in the following manner : 

1. Through the respiratory tract (Inhalation tuberculosis). 

2. Through the digestive tract (Ingestion tuberculosis). 

3 Through the female genital organs (Genital infection, Generative 
tuberculosis). 

4. Through the skin (Cutaneous tuberculosis). 

5. From the umbilical vein during intra-uterine development of the 
fetus (Fetal tuberculosis, Congenital tuberculosis). 

Although in accordance with these modes of infection the primary 
lesion of the disease is expected to be present in the respective organs, 
nevertheless it frequently happens that the tubercle bacilli will not pro- 
duce an affection at the seat of entrance but will be disseminated 
throughout the body and only cause lesions remote from the place of 
entry. 
18 



258 



Chap. VII. Abnormal Conditions and Diseases, etc. 



The fact that lymph glands offer especially favorably conditions for 
colonization and development of tubercle bacilli is of importance in meat 
inspection, and they must therefore be regarded as favorite locations 
for tuberculosis. 

As soon as tubercle bacilli find conditions favorable for development 
in any tissue of the body they multiply and cause a reaction of that tissue. 

This makes itself manifest as a 
round cell proliferation, which ap- 
pears either in the form of an isolated 
tubercle or as a tuberculous infiltra- 
tion. The isolated tubercle in its de- 
veloped condition forms a gray, trans- 
v> A>^ A.. "* parent, nonvascular, cellular nodule of 

/^l^l'! ^ "^ '*^ the size of a millet seed which en- 

-■"^^ ^'* "^ Xi^^N-s.-^ closes tubercle bacilli. Amongst these 

cells there develop, as a rule, multi- 
nuclear giant cells, which are central- 
ly located. In the case of tuberculous 
infiltration, principally exudative proc- 
esses of a fibrous nature appear. 
Soon retrogressive processes take place from the center of the tubercle, 
as a result of which the latter becomes clouded and changes to a grayish 
or yellowish- white color; the tubercle becomes caseous (coagulation 




Fig. 112. Tubercle bacilli. Fuchsin 
and methylen blue staining, x 400 
diam. (after Ziegler). 



^^^mm-' 




^i^i®> 









M^- 



mi, 







Fig. 113 



Fig. 114 



Fig. 113. Changes in the tissue produced by a fresh invasion of tubercle 
bacilli (after Baumgarten) : a, proliferating connective tissue; &, cross-section of 
blood-vessel ; c, karyomitosis in connective tissue ; d, karyomitosis of an endothelial 
cell of a vessel ; e, migrated leucocytes, x 350 diameters. 

Fig. 114. Giant cell containing bacilli from a tubercle with necrotic center. 
X 350 diameters (after Ziegler). 



necrosis with secondary granular disintegration). In the tuberculous 
infiltration the retrogressive processes consist of a more purely coagula- 
tion necrosis, e. g., hyaline degeneration. If the periphery of the tubercle 
does not disintegrate it will gradually become fibrous, and caseo-fibrous 



Infectious Diseases of Food Animals, etc. 259 

tubercle develops. The formation of entirely fibrous tubercles in food 
animals, excepting in the horse, is rare. These processes are followed 
by a further retrogressive metamorphosis, that of calcification of the 
tubercle, which is of especial importance in food animals. Suppuration 
of the tubercle and the formation of abscesses or cavities may result from 
a simultaneous infection with pus-forming organisms, or, as Bongert has 
proven in case of cattle, it may result when tubercle bacilli die gradually 
in great numbers. Abscesses and cavities occur comparatively rarely in 
food animals. Ulcers, however, may be formed as a result of the casea- 
tion of tubercles located on the surface of mucous membranes. 

Notwithstanding the degenerative processes within the tubercle, the 
latter may increase continually in size on the outside and thus develop 
into larger nodules and tubercles. The confluence of small nodules may 
lead to the formation of conglomerates or. to new formations of a fibrous 
character. 

The method of dissemination of tuberculosis and its metastatic for- 
mations are of especial importance in the judgment of tuberculous ani- 
mals, and take place as follows : 

1. Dissemination by the Lymphatic System. — Lymphatic miliary 
tubercles are formed in the neighborhood of the primary tubercle and the 
lymph glands involved become diseased. By means of the further dis- 
semination of the tubercle bacilli by the lymphatic fluid other lymphatic 
glands lying nearer the heart and finally the lymph of the thoracic duct 
and the blood itself may become infected. 

As the lymphatic fluid flows from the inside of the organs toward 
their surface (e. g., toward the corresponding lymphatic glands), it 
becomes self-evident that an infection of the organ cannot be in an inward 
direction from the surface. Should the bacilli enter the lymph of the 
thoracic or abdominal cavities, then not only the serous membranes may 
become infected (serous tuberculosis) but the bacilli may also enter the 
adjoining cavity through the lymph spaces of the diaphragm. 

2. Dissemination by means of the blood may take place after the 
entry of tubercle bacilli into the blood in the above-described way, or also 
after a direct penetration of tubercle bacilli into the blood stream, when 
the walls of the veins become diseased or destroyed by caseation of tuber- 
culous foci. As a result of the dissemination of the tubercle bacilli by 
means of the blood a hematogenous miliary tuberculosis (embolic tuber- 
culosis) develops at the point where the bacilli are deposited and multiply. 
The bacilli which have come into the venous blood may be retained in the 
lungs, and if their penetration occurred at the basic region of the portal 
vein they may be retained in the liver, which is not at all unusual in mild* 
infection of the blood. When the venous blood is flooded with great 



26o Chap. VII. Abnormal Conditions and Diseases, etc. 

numbers of tubercle bacilli, or when the latter enter the veins of the lungs 
they pass into the arterial blood of the large circulatory system and 
thereby into the whole body. This process of dissemination is known as 
"generalized tuberculosis." 

In the dissemination of tubercle bacilli through the large circulatory 
system the placenta may also become infected and from there infection 
may spread to the fetus. 

3. Dissemination of Tubercle Bacilli on the Surface of Mucous 
Membrane by Means of Secretions. — This process may not only transmit a 
further infection of the organs belonging to the affected apparatus 
(larynx, trachea, bronchi, and other parts of the lungs; lymph glands of 
the palate, small and large intestines), but it may also lead to the infec- 
tion of another organ or tract. Thus infection of the digestive apparatus 
may result in consequence of pulmonary tuberculosis if the tuberculous 
excretions, of the respiratory mucous membranes are swallowed. To 
the first-mentioned form of dissemination belongs also the spreading of 
tubercle bacilli from the kidneys by means of the urine to the pelvis of the 
kidneys, ureters, bladders, or to the urethra. 

Meat inspection must distinguish between tzvo forms of tuberculosis 
in accordance with the aforesaid methods of dissemination. 

1. Localised Tuberculosis. — This term designates the following 
conditions : 

(a) The infection of a single part of the body with the correspond- 
ing lymph glands. This form of tuberculosis is most frequent in food- 
producing animals on account of the small number of bacilli in the tuber- 
culous processes. 

(b) Infection of several parts of the body without the concurrence 
of the large circulatory system. Accordingly it deals with tuberculous 
processes which have originated from a primary infection by continuous 
development through dissemination of the bacilli by means of the lym- 
phatic or secretive juices, and, as far as the blood enters into considera- 
tion, through the portal circulation. 

2. Generali::ed Tuberculosis exists when a part of the body is 
affected to which the tubercle bacilli can be taken by the arterial blood 
only (e. g., spleen, kidneys, suprarenal glands, testicles, ovaries, udder 
[Plate i], bones, muscles, body lymph glands, central nervous system, 
eyes, etc.). The number and consistence of tuberculous processes which 
develop in the generalized cases depend upon the degree of prevalence 
of bacilli in the blood and upon the filterable action of the liver and lungs. 
When the latter is very marked many bacilli are retained by these organs, 
and both lungs and liver are found to be everywhere uniformly per- 
meated with tubercular nodules of a similar stage of development (hema- 



Infectious Diseases of Food Animals, etc. 261 

togenous miliary tuberculosis). Acute miliary tuberculosis is spoken of 
when the dissemination of tubercle bacilli by means of blood occurs only 
shortly preceding the d^ath of the animal, resulting in the production in 
most of the organs of a countless number of eruptions of tubercles of 
uniform size which are only slightly degenerated. When the venous 
blood is poor in bacilli only a few single tubercles will develop in the liver 
and lungs. The presence of numerous embolic tubercles in the lungs has 
a prominent diagnostic significance, as it positively indicates infection of 
the blood with numerous tubercle bacilli and thereby points to the suspi- 
cion of generalized tuberculosis. 

. Generalization of tuberculosis, which is not a frequent occurrence 
^mong food animals, does not lead to uniform development of tubercles 
in all parts of the body. The arrangement of the blood vessels in the 
various organs and the extent of circulation of the blood in the organs 
is essentially decisive. Generalized tuberculosis, in addition to the already 
mentioned lesions of the lungs and liver, is usually found in the spleen 
and kidneys, in the various body lymph glands, in the bones and joints, 
and in the udder and uterus; tuberculosis of the latter, however, does 
not indicate a generalized condition. in every instance (e. g., passing of 
tubercle bacilli from the abdominal cavity through the Fallopian tubes 
into the uterus). The muscles proper are so extraordinarily rarely 
affected that by many they have been considered as almost immune to 
tuberculosis. That those tubercle bacilli which enter the circulatory 
system but are not deposited in any of the organs die in from 4 to 6 days 
IS an important fact which was established by Nocard and others. 

Prevalence of Tuberculosis in Food Animals. — The statement made by Ostertag 
that "at least 25 per cent, of the older cattle are tuberculous" is perfectly true. 

According to meat-inspection statistics of the German Empire the percentage of 
tuberculosis in animals slaughtered in 1904 was as follows : 

Cattle, 17.88 per cent.; calves, 0.26; sheep, 0.20; goats, 0.69; hogs, 2.46; horses, 
0.15; dogs, 0.85. 

Tuberculosis in cattle was most prevalent in the Kingdom of Saxony with 
,34.48 per cent., Schaumburg-Lippe being lowest with 5.73 per cent. 

Tuberculosis in calves was most prevalent in Pommerania (Prussia) with 0.79 
■per cent., while Alsace-Lorraine was lowest with 0.02 percent. 

The Kingdom of Saxony also had the highest percentage of tuberculosis in 
liogs with 5.13 per cent., Hohenzollern being lowest with 0.30 per cent. 

Symptoms and Lesio)is. — The clinical appearance of tuberculosis can 
be only briefly described here. The symptoms become of diagnostic 
importance only when they are conspicuous, and when it may be assumed 
that the afifection has reached an advanced stage. Even then they are not 
reliable. Highly suspicious symptoms in all food animals are hard, nodu- 
lar swellings of the lymph glands, udder, or testicles, painless exostosis 
.and swellings of joints, which cannot be attributed to other causes, cough- 



262 



Chap. VII. Abnormal Conditions and Diseases, etc. 



ing, difficulty in breathing with very apparent loss of flesh. Hard, tight 
skin and a rough coat of hair, chronic bloating, hardening of the udder, 
and dry rattling may be additional indications in cattle. The symptoms 
which arouse suspicion in hogs — among which nutritive disturbances are 
rare — are principally exostosis and curvature of the spine without rha- 
chitic symptoms. 

Other methods for diagnosing tuberculosis in the live animal (ante- 
mortem inspection) cannot be given in detail here. 

The lesions present in the slaughtered animal differ in the various 
species. 

In cattle tuberculosis occurs principally in two different forms, which, 

however, are often com- 
bined — namely, tuberculo- 
sis of the serous mem- 
branes (pearly disease), 
and tuberculosis of the 
organs. The former be- 
gins with reddish, soft, 
granulation-like prolifera- 
tions, from which large 
nodules of various sizes 
are developed (see Figs. 
115 and 116), and which, 
either when isolated or 
confluent, show a ten- 
dency to become calcified 
early. Occasionally enor- 
mous, thick, fibrous or 
calcified tuberculous de- 
posits are formed on the 
commonly diseased pleura 
and pericardium. Perito- 
neal tuberculosis is some- 
what less common. 

Concerning tuberculo- 
sis of the organs and mu- 
cous membranes the res- 
piratory apparatus is most 
often the primary seat of 
the affection (tuberculous bronchial pneumonia) ; next conies the digestive 
tract, while the female genital organs are very seldom affected. In the 
lungs there are now and then cavities. In the intestines of cattle the 
result is occasionally a uniformly marked thickening and coarse wrink- 
ling of the mucous membrane, which represents a diffused epithelioid. 




Fig. 115. Small nodular tubercles from the 
pleura of a cow 



Infectious Diseases of Food Animals, etc. 



263 



infiltration without the formation of nodules (Johne and Frothingham, 
Rieck, Markus, Bongert, and others), and in which caseation and ulcera- 
tions cannot be determined.^ 

All parts of the body may be secondarily infected. The manifestation 
of the disease is influenced by the nature and the mode of infection as 
well as by the anatomical structure of the various organs. Lymph gland 
tuberculosis (see Plate II, Fig. 3) is often conspicuous for its enormous 
development. For tuberculosis of the udder compare Plate I. 

Tuberculous processes in cattle tend generally toward dry caseation 
and calcification. Tuberculosis of any organ in which the lesions are soft- 
ened may develop 
"into generalized tu- 
berculosis ; the lat- 
ter is characterized 
in young animals in 
the first place by 
an affection of the 
spleen, in older ani- 
mals by involvement 
of the kidneys. Tu- 
berculosis of the 
bones is not very 
common ; on the 
other hand it is not 
uncommon that the 
body lymph glands 
become diseased 
without being ac- 
companied by a 
similar affection in 
the spleen and kid- 
neys. 

Corresponding to 
the transmission of 
the disease by the 

placenta, calves very „. , ., j , , , r , , 

•^ rig. I ID. Large nodular tubercles from the pleura of 

frequently manifest a cow 




[^Recently it has been satisfactorily shown by Bang, McFadyean and others 
that these intestinal lesions are not due to the tubercle bacillus, but to a somewhat 
similar acid-proof bacillus which produces this hypertrophy of the intestinal mucous 
membrane to which the names of Johne's disease, chronic pseudo-tuberculous 
enteritis^ and chronic bacterial dysentery have been given.] 



264 Chap. VII. Abnormal Conditions and Diseases, etc. 

embolic tuberculosis of the various organs; first of all, in the liver, portal 
glands, lungs, posterior mediastinum, spleen and kidneys, but the disease 
may also result and spread by infection from the digestive tract. General- 
ization occurs in a majority of cases. 

Tuberculosis, although comparatively seldom found in sheep, pre- 
sents in a general way the conditions and appearance of tuberculosis in 
cattle. Lesions of the serous membranes occur also, although they are not 
so common as in cattle. Calcification takes place at a comparatively early 
period. 

This disease appears also in a similar form in goats, in which pearly- 
disease and lesions in the lungs of a similar nature to those found in 
human phthisis (cavity formation) have been observed. [Generalized 
tuberculosis is not uncommon among sheep and goats in Germany, but is 
extremely rare among these species in the United States.] 

In hogs tuberculous afifections occur most frequently in the digestive 
tract from which secondary infection of the various organs, especially 
liver and lungs, and very often also generalized tuberculosis result, which 
are characterized by tuberculosis of the spleen in the majority of cases. 
Primary respiratory tuberculosis is less common than in cattle, while 
lesions of the serous membranes are even more rare. Calcification in the 
tuberculous foci begins at an early period. In generalized tuberculosis the 
lymph glands of the muscles and bones are often affected. Junack has 
described "tuberculosis without retrogressive alterations in swine." In 
one case in which a hog became so diseased the condition resembled 
sarcomatosis. (Plates IV, V, VII.) 

Tuberculosis in the horse, which is very infrequently observed, resem- 
bles tuberculosis in cattle, but does not possess a tendency to calcify; it 
does, however, tend to soften at the center. 

The formation of small fibrous tubercles is not uncommon. The 
lymph glands of the affected organs become considerably hyperplastic. 
Infection spreads principally from the lungs. 

The general appearance of tuberculosis in the dog suggests the con- 
ditions found in the goat, but the tuberculous lesions in the lungs and 
lymph glands are of a more grayish-white color, similar in consistence to 
bone marrow. Instead of caseation there is degeneration into grayish- 
white decomposing masses which resemble whey. 

In carrying out the general method of examination at the post-mortem 
inspection for tuberculosis, the following directions should be observed : 

I. All lymph glands located at the portal of entry of the infection 
must be carefully incised ; first of all the submaxillary and retropharangeal 
lymph glands, tonsils, bronchial, mediastinal, mesenteric, and portal lymph 
Sflands. 



Infectious Diseases of Food Animals, etc. 265 

2. Cutting into plainly visible seats of tuberculous affection, espe- 
cially cavities, should be avoided, if possible, owing to the dissemination 
of tuberculous material. Contamination of the meat with tuberculous 
material must also be carefully guarded against. Soiled knives must be 
used only after boiling in a 2 per cent, solution of soda. 

3. In an animal which is found to be tuberculous the parts which 
are least often affected (lymph glands of the muscles, spleen, kidneys, 
udder, bones) should be examined first. Von Stroh records some inter- 
esting studies concerning the prevalence of tuberculosis of the lymph 
glands of the muscles. 

Identification of the common forms of tuberculosis is not difficult for 
the inspector, when once he is familiar with the manifold variations in the 
form of development of tuberculous processes and their metamorphosis. 
The lymph glands, as has repeatedly been emphasized, form a predilectory 
point for the development of tubercle bacilli and the specific condition of 
the lymph gland is therefore of especial importance for diagnosis (Plate 
II, Fig. 3). The condition of the lymphatic glands also verifies diagnosis 
of doubtful affections of organs, since it may generally be considered that 
at least one of the corresponding glands will be typically affected in tuber- 
culosis of the organs. 

It need not be emphasized that the characteristic conditions of devel- 
opment and structure of tuberculous granulations from the most diminu- 
tive transparent grayish nodules, which at first become clouded at the 
center after which they degenerate, together with the tendency to spread 
to the surrounding tissues by the formation of secondary nodules, are also 
indications worthy of cognizance. Ostertag recommends a microscopic 
examination (at about 40 diameters) of a crushed sample, in order to 
determine with certainty the character of doubtful nodules. By this 
method one can plainly see the round or elongated giant cells, which, as it 
is well known, are especially nicely developed in the tubercles of domestic 
animals. This method is also said to be well adapted for the examination of 
lymph glands for tuberculous foci, which cannot be determined macroscop- 
ically ; they appear conspicuous from the surrounding normal lymph gland 
tissue by disclosing round, colony-like cloudy spots with giant cells in the 
center and epithelioid cells around the outside. 

It is self-evident that the demonstration of the presence of tubercle 
bacilli also serves to make diagnosis positive, although an effort to deter- 
mine their presence may result in failure even in genuine tuberculosis. It 
has been experimentally determined that in strongly caseated or calcified 
foci, attempts to find bacilli often fail, especially in tuberculosis of swine. 
Such foci are, however, infectious, which can be proved by animal experi- 
ment. This, however, cannot be utilized for practical meat inspection on 
account of the delay in the decision which it would cause. 



266 Chap. VII. Abnormal Conditions and Diseases, etc. 

The following-named conditions may be mistaken for tuberculous 
lesions : 

1. Degenerated echinococci and measles (pages 235 and 239). 

2. Actinomycotic processes (page 273). 

3. Pentastome colonies in the lymph glands (page 234, Plate II, 

Fig. 4)- 

4. Strongyle nodules in the lung of sheep (page 226). 

5. Lesions of hog cholera (page 306). 

The characteristic indications of these diseases are sufficiently dis- 
cussed under their respective heads, and when compared with the char- 
acteristic pathological peculiarities of tuberculosis they assure definite 
results in diagnosing the latter, such diagnosis being in addition based on 
the appearance of the lymph glands and the result of a microscopic 
examination. 

Virulence of the Tissues of Tuberculous Animals 

In testing the question as to the extent to which tuberculous changes 
in food animals may become dangerous to human health as a result of 
their utilization as food, one cannot avoid the premise that the tubercle 
bacillus of animals is identical with the bacillus which causes human tuber- 
culosis. And as tubercle bacilli entering the digestive tract of man are 
apt to produce tuberculosis, and also since virulent tubercle bacilli are 
found in the tuberculous parts of food animals, it follows that all organs 
and parts of carcasses which are tuberculous must be regarded as infec- 
tious and dangerous to human health. Animals in which only the lymph 
glands are diseased belong in this category, as it is very possible that 
small, virulent tuberculous foci in the earliest stage of development have 
been overlooked at the macroscopical examination of the parenchyma of 
the organs. This fact makes it self-evident that tuberculous organs must 
be considered as totally unwholesome, even when only a few scattered 
lesions may apparently occur therein. 

In regard to the virulence of the meat, e. g., the striated muscles, it 
must be remembered that the musculature is very infrequently the seat of 
tuberculous processes, that as a rule tubercle bacilli are carried to the 
muscles by the blood only, and that they occur in the blood rarely, and 
then they remain in the circulation only for a short period of time. 

Numerous experiments in feeding and inoculation have been con- 
ducted on animals to test the virulence of tuberculous meat, but as has 
already been pointed out by Ostertag, the dissemination or extent and 
special charcter of the tuberculous affection in the animal, from which the 
sample of muscle was taken, were entirely disregarded. Ostertag sum- 
marizes the results of these experiments by saying that "muscle or juice 



Infectious Diseases of Food Animals, etc. 267 

of muscle from tuberculous animals does not, as a rule, contain any or not 
Rufificient bacilli to produce tuberculosis in experimental animals." The 
meat is infectious only in the most advanced stage of tuberculosis, and 
when suppurative softening of the tuberculous lesions are present. In 
connection with this it must also be considered that, although the suscepti- 
bility of man to tuberculosis is assumed to be the same as that of experi- 
mental animals, yet the number of bacilli which will produce tuberculosis 
on intraperitoneal inoculation is not sufficient to produce it by their intro- 
duction into the digestive tract, and that, therefore, a positive result 
from inoculation does not imply that the meat is unwholesome for 
food. Even the most recent investigations along this line by Hoefnagel, 
Westenhoeffer, Swierstra, in which the condition of the tuberculous ani- 
mal, the extent of the affection, and the nature of the tuberculous proc- 
esses were carefully taken into consideration, have corroborated Oster- 
tag's view. 

From the same standpoint should be considered the results of the 
experiments regarding the blood and the muscle juice from tuberculous 
animals. 

Notwithstanding all this, one must take into consideration, from a 
meat-inspection standpoint^ that muscle is not the only form of meat 
which must be considered, or that the term "meat" does not include the 
striated musculature only ; it also includes other constituents of meat, the 
lymph glands and bones of which especially are not uncommonly affected 
by tuberculosis when the disease has become generalized in the body. 
Precaution is therefore necessary in judging generalized tuberculosis. 

In the utilization of meat from tuberculous animals the fact that the 
tubercle bacilli possess only a small degree of resistance to high grades of 
temperature is of great importance to national economy. According to 
Bang, 85° C. for a period of ten minutes will suffice to kill tubercle bacilli, 
while Yersin and Forster give 70 to 75° C. at ten minues as sufficient. On 
this is based the utilization of the meat of tuberculous animals after 
cooking. 

Tubercle bacilli are very resistant to pickling and to smoking and 
pickling. 

In the judgment of tuberculous lesions of food animals by the veteri- 
nary inspector in connection with their harmfulness to man, the things to 
be considered are the extent of the affection and stage of development, the 
age and nature of the tuberculous changes, and the nutritive condition of 
the animal. 

In general a poor nutritive condition, especially extreme emaciation, 
will unfavorably influence the judgment. 

The same is true regarding the age of the tuberculous lesions when 
fresh disease processes exist, and especially when the latter are contiguous 
to the old infections. A fresh "blood infection" (fresh generalized condi- 



268 



Chap. VII. Abnormal Conditions and Diseases, etc. 



tion, acute miliary tuberculosis in the most restricted sense), is present 
only when the spleen or the lymph glands are swollen, or when very small 
tubercles, not over the size of a millet seed, which have developed by way 
of the large circulatory system, are present. Fresh blood infection, which 
as a rule is seldom found in food animals, demands careful examination 
and consideration. 

Precaution is recommended owing to the nature of tuberculous mate- 
rials in the soft tuberculous processes (cavities and purulent cheesy 
abscesses), as a generalized condition is easily associated with them. 

Regarding the extension of tuberculosis the forms mentioned on 
page 260 should be clearly distinguished. 

The judgment of individual cases of tuberculosis must proceed 
according to the following outline which has been made public in con- 
nection with the meat-inspection regulations for the guidance of non- 
veterinary inspectors. Owing to the comprehensive character of this 
manual it has been deemed necessary to- add explanatory notes giving the 
reasons on which the outline is based. 



Outline shoii'ing the forms of tuberculosis in food animals, and disposal of the 
meat of tuberculous animals 



Forms of Tuberculosis 


Disposal of the Meat 


I. Tuberculosis of one organs 




a. With extreme emaciation. 


Whole carcass unfit for food. 


b. Not extremely emaciated. 


Parts not changed are unconditionally 




fit for food. 


I. Tuberculosis which is not confined to 




one organ! 




I. In which infection was not spread 




by the large circulatory system. 




A. With extreme emaciation. 


Whole carcass imfit for food. 


B. Not extremely emaciated. 




a. With extensive softened le- 


Parts not changed conditionally fit for 


sions. 


food. 


b. Without extensive softened 




lesions : 




I. When the disease is only 


The parts not changed are uncondition- 


slightly extended. 


ally fit for food. 


2. When the disease is great- 


The parts not changed are fit for food, 


ly extended. 


but materially reduced in value. 


2. Tn which infection was spread by 




the large circulatory system. 




A. Manifestations of a fresh blood 




infection. 


"■ ' 


a. With extreme emaciation. 


The whole carcass is unfit for food. 


b. Without extreme emaciation : 




I. Fresh infection in the vis- 


Unchanged parts are conditionally fit for 


cera or in the udder 


food. 


only. 




2. Fresh infection not con- 


Fat is conditionally fit for food, meat is 


fined only to the viscera 


unfit for food. 


or in the udder. 





Infectious Diseases of Food Animals, etc. 



269 



Outline showing the forms of tuberculosis in food animals, and disposal of the 
meat of tuberculous animals — Continued 



Forms of Tuberculosis 



Without the manifestation of 
fresh blood infection. 

a. With extreme emaciation. 

b. Without extreme emaciation: 

1. With extensive softened 

lesions : 

2. Without extensive softened 

lesions, 
a' Tuberculous changes ex- 
ist in the viscera or 
in the udder only: 
a" When the disease is 
only slightly ex- 
tended, 
b" When the disease is 
greatly extended, 
b' Tuberculous changes not 
confined to viscera and 
udder only. 

a" When the disease is 
only slightly ex- 
tended. 

b" When the disease is 
greatly extended. 



Disposal of the Meat 



Whole carcass unfit for food. 

Unchanged parts are conditionally fit for 
food. 



Unchanged parts are unconditionally fit 
for food. 

Unchanged parts are fit for food, but 
materially reduced in value. 

Of the unchanged parts, quarters of a 
carcass which contain a tuberculous 
lymph gland are conditionally fit for 
food. 

The other unchanged parts are uncondi- 
tionally fit for food. 

Fit for food, but materially reduced in 
value. 



Remarks. — The changed parts under I b, II i B, II 2 A b i, and II 
2 B b are unfit for food. 

An organ must even then be regarded as tuberculous when only the correspond- 
ing lymph glands of that organ show tuberculous changes ; a similar position must 
be taken with regard to pieces of meat which have not been shown to be free from 
tuberculosis bj^ careful inspection. 

Regarding tuberculosis of individual organs the rule is that the whole 
organ should be always condemned when its corresponding glands show 
tuberculous changes. 

When the mesenteric lymph glands are affected a distinction must 
be made between those of the small and large intestines, and the respective 
intestines to which the affected group of lymph glands belong must be 
condemned. The mesentery with the diseased glands may be permitted 
to be utilized for technical purposes after it has been thoroughly 
denatured. 

When the submaxillary and retropharyngeal lymph glands are dis- 
eased they must be removed, together with the surrounding parts, includ- 
ing the tonsils ; however, no other parts of the head need be condemned, 
as these lymph glands become infected almost exclusively from the 
mucous membranes of the mouth, nose, and pharyngeal orifice, none of 
which are used for food in Germany. 



270 Chap. VII. Abnormal Conditions and Diseases, etc. 

Relative to the judgment of a tuberculous ''quarter," that part of the 
body is considered infected which corresponds to the region drained by 
the diseased body lymph glands. However, in case of tuberculosis of the 
vertebra, ribs, or sternum, when the cause of the affection in the lymph 
glands can be traced to the respective bones, it will not be necessary to 
condemn the more posterior draining region of the lymph gland, but the 
altered bones and glands only need removal. The judgment of the 
remaining part of the carcass should naturally depend on the presence of 
other lesions. 

When there is suspicion of tuberculosis of the bones, especially in 
hogs, it becomes necessary to remove the meat from the bones, and to 
split the latter. 

In removing tuberculous parts, especially serous membranes, atten- 
tion is called to the necessity of removing the associated lymph glands 
and the other parts adjoining them. In order to satisfactorily remove 
.small lymph glands to which access is difficult, it is advisable to remove 
the surrounding parts of meat and bone with them. The veterinary 
inspector must do this himself or see that it is being done under his 
immediate supervision. In this operation one should not go to^ an extreme 
by removing more meat than is absolutely under suspicion of being tuber- 
culous. In all this work care must be taken not to contaminate sound 
meat with tuberculous material ; also special attention should be given to 
changing knives, saws, etc., which are soiled with tuberculous material. 

Veal from calves which were vaccinated with protective tuberculosis vaccine 
(for example Bovo-vaccin and Tauruman) contains virulent tubercle bacilli for sev- 
eral months after the inoculation ; owing to this fact several states have issued 
regulations permitting the use of such meat only after cooking. 

[The judgment of tuberculous carcasses of food animals in the 
United States varies somewhat from that adopted in Germany. While 
it would appear that the condemnations from the extent of the lesions 
are stricter in this country, the affected carcasses which would pass con- 
ditionally in Germany being condemned in this country, yet the difference 
in the judgment of tubertulosis is principally due to the fact that there 
are no provisions made in the United States by which certain affected 
carcasses could be passed conditionally for food (after sterilization), as 
the "Freibank system" has never been established in this country. On 
the other hand, in accordance with the regulations governing meat inspec- 
tion in the United States, the tuberculous carcasses which are condi- 
tionally passed for food in Germany are passed for lard and tallow in 
this country; such carcasses, however, have to be subjected to a tempera- 
ture of 220° F. for not less than four hours. 



Infectious Diseases of Food Animals, etc. 271 

In the following section, the requirements for the disposition of 
tuberculous carcasses are given, in accordance with B. A. I. Order 150: 

Section 13. Paragraph i. The following principles are declared for guidance 
in passing on carcasses affected with tuberculosis : 

Principle A. — The fundamental thought is that meat should not be used for 
food if it contains tubercle bacilli, if there is a reasonable possibility that it may 
contain tubercle bacilli, or if it is impregnated with toxic substances of tuberculosis 
or associated septic infections. 

Principle B. — On the other hand, if the lesions are localized and not numerous, 
if there is no evidence of distribution of tubercle bacilli through the blood, or by 
other means, to the muscles or to parts that may be eaten with the muscles, and 
if the animal is well nourished and in good condition, there is no proof, or even 
reason to suspect, that the flesh is unwholesome. 

Principle C. — Evidences of generalized tuberculosis are to be sought in such 
distribution and number of tuberculous lesions as can be explained only upon the 
supposition of the entrance of tubercle bacilli in considerable number into the sys- 
temic circulation. Significant of such generalization are the presence of numerous 
taniformly distributed tubercles throughout both lungs, also tubercles in the spleen, 
kidneys, bones, joints, and sexual glands, and in the lymphatic glands connected 
with these organs and parts, or in the splenic, renal, prescapular, popliteal, and 
inguinal glands, when several of these organs and parts are coincidentally afifected. 

Principle D. — By localized tuberculosis is understood tuberculosis limited to a 
single or several parts or organs of the body without evidence of recent invasion of 
numerous bacilli into the systemic circulation. 

Paragraph 2. The following rules shall govern the disposal of tubercu- 
lous meat : 

Rule A. — The entire carcass shall be condemned — 

{a) When it was observed before the animal was killed that it was suffering 
with fever. 

(b) When there is a tuberculous or other cachexia, as shown by anemia and 
emaciation. 

(c) When the lesions of tuberculosis are generalized, as shown by their pres- 
ence not only at the usual seats of primary infection, but also in parts of the carcass 
or the organs that may be reached by the bacilli of tuberculosis only when they 
are carried in the systemic circulation. Tuberculous lesions in any two of the 
following-mentioned organs are to be accepted as evidence of generalization when 
they occur in addition to local tuberculous lesions in the digestive or respirator}- 
tracts, including the lymphatic glands connected therewith : Spleen, kidney, uterus, 
udder, ovary, testicle, adrenal gland, brain or spinal cord or their membrane.">. 
Numerous uniformly distributed tubercles throughout both lungs also afford evi- 
dence of generalization. 

(i) When the lesions of tuberculosis are found in the muscles or intermusculai 
tissue or bones or joints or in the body lymphatic glands as a result of draining the 
muscles, bones, or joints. 

{e) When the lesions are extensive in one or both body cavities. 

if) When the lesions are multiple, acute, and actively progressive. (Evidence 
of active progress consists in signs of acute inflammation about the lesions, or 
liquefaction necrosis, or the presence of young tubercles.) 

Rule B. — An organ or a part of a carcass shall be condemned — 

(a) When it contains lesions of tuberculosis. 



2/2 Chap. VII. Abnormal Conditions and Diseases, etc. 

(b) When the lesion is immediately adjacent to the flesh, as in the case of 
tuberculosis of the parietal pleura or peritoneum, not only the membrane or part 
affected but also the adjacent thoracic or abdominal wall is to be condemned. 

(c) When it has been contaminated by tuberculous material, through contact 
with the floor, a soiled knife, or otherwise. 

(d) All heads showing lesions of tuberculosis shall be condemned. 

(c) An organ shall be condemned when the corresponding lymphatic g'.and 
is tuberculous. 

Rule C. — The carcass, if the tuberculous lesions are limited to a single or several 
parts or organs of the body (except as noted in Rule A), without evidence of 
recent invasion of tubercle bacilli into the systemic circulation, shall be passed 
after the parts containing the localized lesions are removed and condemned in 
accordance with Rule B. 

Rule D.- — ^Carcasses which reveal lesions more numerous than those described 
for carcasses to be passed (Rule C), but not so severe as the lesions described for 
carcasses to be condemned (Rule A), may be rendered into lard or tallow if the 
distribution of the lesions is such that all parts containing tuberculous lesions can 
be removed. Such carcasses shall be cooked by steam at a temperature not lower 
than 220 degrees Fahrenheit for not less than four hours.] 

2, Pseudo''tuberculosis 

As pseudo-tuberculosis are designated the affections which run their 
course by producing nodules similar to those in tuberculosis and which as 
a rule also caseate but which are not caused by Koch's tubercle bacillus. 
Foreign bodies, cocci, bacteria, bacilli and hyphomycetes may be etiolog- 
ically involved. However, only those names which are etiologically cor- 
rect are at present used in connection with the tuberculous-like processes 
caused by animal parasites, which were formerly also designated as 
tuberculosis. 

Frequency. — Among food animals pseudo-tuberculous processes with 
conspicuous caseation or premature calcification occur most frequently in 
sheep. They have, however, been found in cattle, calves, guinea pigs, 
rabbits, and chickens. 

In sheep the disease is caused by the bacillus psuedo-tuberculosis ovis Preisz, 
which appears as a very thin immotile rod, and which stains readily with aqueous 
anilin dyes and by Gram's method ; the bacilli in cultures are both thicker and 
longer, developing also club and pear-shaped forms. (Hutyra and Marek.) 
(Fig. 117.) 

[In this country the disease is called caseous lymphadenitis and is 
fully described in the 17th Annual Report of the U. S. Bureau of Animal 
Industry.] 

The absence of giant cells and epithelioid cells, according to Ostertag, 
is of importance in identifying pseudo-tuberculous alterations. The dry, 
caseated pseudo-tuberculous lesions in the lymph glands are characterized 
by onion-like layers (Noack). An attempt should also be made to estab- 
lish the cause of the processes. It may be confused with tuberculosis only, 




Infectious Diseases of Food Animals, etc. 273 

but this may be avoided by carefully observing the aforementioned charac- 
teristics, together with those changes which are characteristic of genuine 
tuberculosis. 

Judgment. — All parts of carcasses per- 
meated with pseudo-tuberculous processes 
should be treated as unfit for food, regard- 
less of the form of infection, whether it is 
of primary, secondary, or embolic nature. 
Whether or not the whole carcass shall be 
condemned, or declared of inferior value 
for food, depends upon the condition of the 
animal and the character of the meat. 
Noack recommends that similar action be 
taken as in genuine tuberculosis until it has pio-. 117. Bacillus pseudo- 
been proven that man is not susceptible to tuberculosis ovis. Agar cul- 
,, 1 .,1 1^1 1 • ture. Gram's staining. After 

the bacillus pseudo-tuberculosis. Hutvra and Marek 

[The judgment of carcasses affected with 
pseudo-tuberculosis is carried out in this country on the same lines as is 
prescribed for Germany.] 

3. Actinomycosis 

The ray fungus disease (which is caused by a fission fungus, the 
Actinomyces bovis, or Streptothrix actinomyces) (Fig. 118) is a disease 
of slow course, which occurs in cattle, swine, sheep, and horses, as well as 
in man. It is characterized by the formation of tumors, connective tissue 
infiltrations and abscesses. 

Pathogenesis. — The ray fungus can enter the body through the diges- 
tive or respiratory tracts or through the outer skin. After entering the 
tissues the fungus develops a nodule, in the neighborhood of which an 
inflammatory area and a granulation zone soon arise. Around this 
center changes will then occur, either the formation of connective tissue 
neoformations which lead to induration and hardening, or destruction of 
tissue and abscess formation. The latter condition occurs especially 
among swine. The actinomycotic growth in domestic animals shows 
chiefly fibrous characters, but occasionally a myxofibromatous consistence 
may also appear. Both enclose the above-mentioned granulation center, 
in which the actinomyces fungi may be recognized macroscopically as fine- 
grained, sulphur-yellow bodies. 

Microscopically the latter appear to be greenish and of a character- 
istically radiated structure, and when calcified are somewhat darker in 
color. 

19 



274 Chap. VII. Abnormal Conditions and Diseases, etc. 

Metastatic extensions of the fungus from the primary lesion may 
occur, causing generalization in other parts of the body, but this occurs 
with remarkable infrequency, as does also any affection of the lymphatic 
glands, where neither purulence nor calcification are often found to occur. 

Symptoms and Lesions. — In cattle the chief symptoms are hard 
tumor-like distentions of the jaw-bones, at which points red, sarcomatous 
proliferations may break out through the skin. Such tumors may also 




Fig. ii8. Actinomyces bovis. a, x 
200 diam. ; h, x 500 diam. Aftev 
Johne. 




occur in the region of the parotid glands, on the cheeks, the lips, and more 
rarely on other parts of the body. The tongue changes to be described 
below, while occurring much more frequently than the affection of the 
jaw, are noticed only in the most severe cases during the life of the ani- 
mal, or when the animal is noticea'^ly troubled in taking up its food. The 
latter condition will gradually lead to the emaciation of the animal, 
although its general health is undisturbed. In swine the most common 
indication of actinomycosis consists in nodular growths and cold abscesses 
within the udder. The first may also be accompanied by ulcerations or fistu- 
lous formations. Larger tumors are comparatively rare. .Small actinomy- 
cotic nodules may be observed at the seat of castration, both in male and 
female hogs. In other food animals actinomycotic affections are very 
rarely recognized during life. 

In slaughtered cattle the most frequent seat of the disease is the 
tongue, the actinomycotic affection starting as a rule, in the transverse 
groove (Fig. 119). In and around this location little nodules may arise, 
scattered about in the mucous membrane. Whenever these growths per- 
meate the lingual muscles, inflammation results which affects chronically 
the intermuscular connective tissues leading to enlargement and harden- 



Infectious Diseases of Food Animals, etc. 



'^7S 



ing of the organ (wooden tongue). On the surface of the tongue actin- 
omycotic erosions and fungiform prominences may develop. Similar 
alterations may also occur upon the cheeks and gums. 

The changes in the jaw-bones usually result from the entrance of the 




Fig". 119. Actinomycotic ulcer on the dorsum of the tongue of cattle. Accord- 
ing to Hutyra and Marek. 



fungus alongside of the teeth, and often lead to considerable swelling and 
deformities (Fig. 120). The infrequently occurring actinomycotic 
changes in other mucous membranes and viscera appear as pedunculated 
tumors (in the buccal cavity, 
esophagus, and stomachs), or as 
nodular tumors, which through 
myxomatous infiltrations may 
reach great dimensions (espe- 
cially in the lungs). 

In the udder the changes oc- 
cur as nodular growths or as 
diffuse indurative inflammations 
in conjunction with the former. 
Actinomycosis of the skin is 
seen principally on the head and 
neck in the form of tumors, or 
as diffused bacon-like infiltra- 
tions. Pieroni found actinomy- 
cotic changes in the dura mater 
and the occipital bone. 

As previously mentioned, ac- 
tinomycosis of swine appears most frequently as a disease of the maminse, 
manifested either by nodules with skin erosions, or by cold abscesses 
with or without fistulous formations. Extensive infiltrations are compara- 
tively rare in these parts. The lesions at the places of castration are 




Fig. 120. Frontal section through the 
nose and superior maxilla of cattle with 
an actinomycotic growth, a, nodules 
consisting of connective tissue, bone, 
and small suppurative foci. ^4 of the 
natural size. After Ziegler. 



276 Chap. VII. Abnormal Coiulitions and Diseases, etc. 

mostly nodular. Actinomycotic changes in the fauces are relatively quite 
rare (Johne) ; likewise abscesses in the region of the throat and on the 
other parts of the skin. 

Actinomycosis has been found in the lungs, nmsclcs, and on the lips 
and tongue of slaughtered sheep. 

The cases of actinomycosis of the horse are limited to a few observa- 
tions of the disease in the spermatic cord lymph glands, bones, tongue, and 
generalized affections. 

Diagnosis is not difficult if attention is given to the j^athological 
characteristics mentioned above. The scattered yellowish granules are to 
be especially noted in the growths, the microscopical examination of 
which assures a diagnosis. This may be a hard undertaking where degen- 
eration of the actinomyces fungi has become established, but in food ani- 
mals this condition does not occur often. The fungi stain readily with 
Gram's stain and wdth picro-carmine. 

Actinomycotic tumors mav be mistaken for various other growths, 
especially for tuberculous nodules, when the characteristic structure of the 
actinomycotic tumors is not considered, and besides when insufficient 
attention is paid to the condition of the lymph glands. 

Judgment. — Although actinomycosis may at times aft'ect man danger- 
ously, no instance has been observed of a direct transmission of the fungus 
to people, either from living or slaughtered animals. The actinomycotic tis- 
sues should be condemned as unfit for human food on account of their 
decidedly abnormal consistence. This disposition should be made of the 
entire organ wherever multiple local infection has occurred. In cases of 
generalized actinomycosis the entire carcass should be carefully examined 
on account of the atypical course of such generalization and the jxirts 
showing actinomycotic changes should be condemned. 

I In accordance with V>. A. I. Carder 150, Regulation 13, section u, 
paragraphs 1-3, carcasses aft'ected w'th generalized actinomycosis should 
be condemned ; in case the affection has not extended from the primary 
area of infection and is confined to the head, the carcass is passed for food 
while the head and tongue is condemned. Where the lesions are uncom- 
plicated and localized the infected organ or parts are condemned, while 
the carcass is passed for food.] 

Actinobacillosis, which has boon found liy Lignioros and Spitz, in tho cattle and 
occasionally in the sheep of Argentine, is not of importance to the German inspector 
of meats. ■^ 



[1 In Canada this disease has been reported in cattle and recently a case of acti- 
nobacillosis was observed in a hog in this country.] 



Infectious hiscascs of l'"oorl Animals, etc. 



277 



/". 








4. Botryomycosis 

i'.olryomycosis is a chronic, lunior-likc connective tissue proliferation, 
caused by the Botryn'coccus ascoformans, Kitt. It j^^rows as s]jherical or 
}^n-a])c-likc- colonies ( l''i,^'. 121;, which soon arc stUTounded hy hyaline cap- 
sules. These clumps oi round micro-fjrf^auisms 
were called Botryomyccs by Dollinj^'er ; Hisco- 
myccs eqni \)y Kivolta; Micrococcus a.scofor- 
mans, by Johne, and Micrococcus botryoj^enns 
by Rabe. This disease occurs almost exclusively 
in horses, but it has also been observed in cattle 
and hoj^s in isolated cases. 

Symptoms and Lesions. — The characteristic 
lesions are fibrous nodules and ttnnors with |.. ^ ^^^ Colony of 

softened yellowish-brown areas in the center, in ijf.iryomyces. Aficr Kabc. 
which small sand-like j^^ranules of a yellowish- 
white color are found. The latter are comijosed of ^•ra]>e-sh-i])efl, con- 
glomerate, closely adherent clum])S of botryococci. 

The mr)St common site r,f these noflules in the horse is the subcutis 
and siKrmatic cord, but they may also occur in the udder, ribs, muscles, 
and on ihe ])leura. (hienther, fz<jkor, immelmann, and Keali have also 
rei)orted it in cattle, while Wilbrandt anrl Schneidemiihl have found 
1)otryomycosis in the ho^'. A j^a-neralizalion of the disease has been vari- 
ously observed. 

The disease is recoj^nizcd by microso^jMc examination oi the abf;ve- 
menti(.ned tyrannies, which stain with all the basic anilin stains, thereby 
avoidint,^ confusion with other infectious ^M-anulomata, such as actinomy- 
cosis and j^landers. 

JmU^nicnt. — All parts affected with botryomycotic ];rocesses are to 
be cfiudemned as unfit for food and destroyed. | See 1!. A. 1. Drder 150, 
Ue^ulation 13, secti^Jii 23. 1 

5. Anthrax 

Anthrax, which occurs in all food-producinj^ animals, in j^ame, and 
in fowls, is ]jn,duced by the liacillus anthrncis. d"he ho^^ and do<,^ arc some- 
what resistant to infectic^u, but aiithr.-ix in feci ion has been satisfactorily 
demonstrated in them. 



JUiclcriology— The anthrax l.acilli (Figs, 122 and 123) measure 1.5 to .3 
niicrons in Icnglli, i to 1.5 microns in widih, with slightly convex or perfectly square 
ends. They form obtusely angular cliains reaching a maximmn of 10 microns m 
lenglh. 'I'lie anllirax Ijacilli are inimolilc, anrl those taken from the blood are 



278 



Chap. VII. Abnormal Conditions and Diseases, etc. 



surrounded by a characteristic, capsular or gelatinous membrane, by which they 
are distinguished from other similarly formed bacteria. The anthrax bacillus 
grows only in the presence of oxygen and forms spores (Fig. 123) ; the latter, how- 
ever, never form in the live animal body or in the intact cadaver. The best way to 
prepare suspected material (spleen pulp) for shipment and bacteriological exami- 




Fig. 122 

Fig. 122. Anthra.x bacilli with stained 
capsule. X 500 diameters. 

F"ig. 123. Anthrax bacilli containing 
spores. Agar culture 8 hours old. 
Stained bv fuchsin. After Hutyra and 
Marek. 




nation is by careful slow drying of thick smears on glass slides or on the inner 
surface of test tubes (Bongert and Hosang ■ ; or perhaps better still, by the Forster 
plaster-paris rod method (Marxer, Jacobsthal and Pfersdorff, Eberle, Dausel). 

Staining of the anthrax bacilli with their capsules. — After Luepke: Slightly 
boil the cover-glass preparation with a 0.2 per cent, gentian violet solution; rinse 
thoroughly with water. After Johne : Stain in hot 2 per cent, gentian A'iolet solu- 
tion ; wash in water; decolorize for 10-20 seconds in 2 per cent. ace;ic acid; wash in 
water. After Klett : Boil in alcoholic methylene blue solution ( i : to Alk. : 100 Aq.) ; 
.wash in water; slain in alcoholic solution of fuchsin (i : 10 Alk. : 100 Aq.) ; wash. 
After Olt : Heat the cover-glass over a flame after applying a 3 per cent, aqueous 
safranin solution; wash in water. After Racbiger : Air-dried cover-glass prepara- 
tions stained cold with formalin-gentian violet (150 g. 40 per cent, formalin with 
15-20 g. gentian violet) for 20 seconds; wash in water. 



PotJwgciicsis. — The anthrax bacilli, or their spores, enter eitlier 
throngh injuries of the skin or through the digestive apparatus into the 
organism. Only the spores are effective by the latter method. The infec- 
tion by way of the air passages, which occurs in man, is exceedingly rare 
in animals. From the point of inoculation the bacilli enter the blood, 
where they multiply rapidly, and through their toxins produce a severe 
febrile aft'ection. 

Symptoms and Lesions. — The clinical symptoms vary considerably, 
according to the infection, species of animals, and individttals, and they 
may be entirely overlooked in abortive cases (apoplectiform anthrax). 
Otherwise, characteristic symptoms are the sudden appearance of the dis- 
ease, the rapid course, high fever, and general severe constitutional symp- 
toms, hemorrhages into the mucous membranes, and bloody discharges, 
cerebral or pulmonary congestions, colic and drying up of milk-secretion 



Infectious IJiscases of Food Animals, etc. 279 

in lactating animals. In some cases there may be present visible localiza- 
tions, such as carbuncle, and edema of the skin (especially in cattle and 
horses) and mucous membranes (especially of the tongue, termed gloss- 
anthrax) ; also edema of the neck in hogs. 

Of the pathological findings, the most important is the swollen 
spleen, whose pulp is blackish-red and of a fluid consistency. In the hog 
and horse, exceptionally also in emergency slaughtered cattle, enlarge- 
ment of the spleen may be slight or absent. Further there occurs cloudy 
swelling of the heart, liver, and kidneys with venous stasis or formation 
of hemorrhagic infarcts and petechial hemorrhages. The latter may occur 
on any part of the body, especially beneath the pericardium and pleura. 
Marked stasis in the mesenteric, intestinal and hepatic veins is present 
with brownish-red discoloration of the mucous membrane of the aboma- 



4-^ 









f^' :.; -• ,^mv Fi^ 125 









V 


'>> 1 '^;^ 






-^3 


^ 


r 


C2) 


^ 


-vj '-^ 


-^".^■^ 






Fig. 124 









^ ^ I the bacillus anthracis in a 24-hour 

V ' 'i=^ o'^ ^S^'' P^^*^*^ culture. x 50 



Fig. 124. Superficial colony of 
e bacillu 
d agar 
diameters. 



Fig. 125. Cadaver bacilli. x 
500 diameters. 

sum and intestinal walls, in which hemorrhages may occur, bloody infil- 
tration of the mucous membranes of the small intestines, and to less 
degree of the colon mucosa. Pulmonary edema and marked cervical 
edema, especially in hogs, may be noted, and also yellowish gelatinous and 
bloody infiltrations of the subcutis, with engorged veins of the .skin and 
mu.scles. The majority of the lymphatic glands are strikingly edematous, 
hyperemic, and show bloody extravasations. Rigor mortis is absent. The 
blood is not coagulated, and is, as a rule, dark to black-red (tar-like) ; 
there occur cases, however, which run a rapid course, in which the color 
of the blood is not materially changed. 

The unopened cadaver rapidly becomes distended, and from the 
natural body openings there will flow discharges mixed with blood ; in the 
body cavities will be found a blood-stained serous fluid. 



28o Chap. VII. Abnormal Conditions and Diseases, etc. 

The recognition of anthrax is based on careful consideration of the 
anatomic findings and the microscopic examination of a stained cover- 
glass preparation made from the splenic pulp, the lymph of the mesen- 
teric glands, the blood of the veins of the skin, or from the edematously 
infiltrated portions of the subcutis. In doubtful cases test inoculations and 
culture growths for the demonstration of the bacilli will be effective ; but 
these cannot be considered at this point. It might be emphasized, how- 
ever, that the plate method (Fig. 124) is the best and safest for the bac- 
teriological diagnosis of anthrax (Kitt, Bongert, Hosang, Kaesewurm). 

For differential diagnosis must be considered : Blackleg, malignant 
edema, hemorrhagic septicemia, septic diseases, petechial fever, certain 
intoxications, overfeeding of cattle after long transportation, and erysipe- 
las in hogs. For particular characteristics of these diseases, as com- 
pared with the symptoms of anthrax as well as the differentiating char- 
acteristics of some of the microorganisms of these diseases, the reader is 
referred elsewhere for their description. 

Partial splenic enlargement (infarcts) resulting from torsion or 
emboli is characterized by firm consistency of the swollen parts. A very 
large splenic tumor, involving the entire organ, has been observed in the 
hog as a result of torsion. A confusion of cadaver bacilli with anthrax 
bacilli is excluded in the light of our recent staining technique and upon 
careful study of the two species (Figs. 122 and 125).^ Kaesewurm has 
called attention to a pseudo-anthrax bacillus which also forms colonies 
composed of bundles of wavy, tangled filaments. 

Judgment. — The meat of anthrax animals should be considered 
injurious as food, and is to be condemned and destroyed. The latter is 
effected by the veterinary police ; every case of anthrax or suspected 
anthrax is, according to the regulations, to be immediately reported to 
the local police authorities. 

Meat suspected of having been only superficially soiled with anthrax bacilli, 
which may occur in the case of an animal infected with anthrax being slaughtered 
in an abattoir with other animals, may be utilized for food after having been ster- 
ilized with steam. 

If on ante-mortem inspection an animal be suspected of having 
anthrax, slaughtering is to be forbidden, and the necessary measures 
should be taken to prevent its spread to man or to animals and arrest 
further dissemination of the infectious material. 



[1 McFadyean has recently described a peculiar staining reaction of anthrax 
bacilli which is specific. 'Smear preparations are stained for a few seconds with a 
I per cent, aqueous solution of methylene blue ; the amorphous material around 
and between the bacilli appears violet or reddish-purple, while the bacilli and cell 
nuclei are blue.] 



Infectious Diseases of Food Animals, etc. 281 

If a slaughtered animal be found diseased, all parts thereof are to be 
confiscated and left to the disposition of the veterinary authorities. Per- 
sons engaged in the slaughter of the animal or in handling it in any way 
are to be carefully examined for probable infection (wounds on hands or 
arms). 

The fact that much anthrax meat has been eaten without any harm to man is 
explained by the loss of vitality of the bacilli (not of the spores, however) in the 
intestinal tract, where, as a rule, they are destroyed by the gastric juice. This meat 
nevertheless remains dangerous to man on account of the liability to inoculation by 
handling or by ingestion through the injured mucous membrane of the diges- 
tive tract. 

[In accordance with B. A. I. Order 150, Regulation 13, section 2, car- 
casses affected with anthrax should be immediately incinerated ; the same 
disposition should be made of the hides, hoofs, horns, viscera, and all 
other parts of the diseased animal. The killing bed and all the instruments 
used in the slaughter of the animal should be disinfected with a 10 per 
cent, formalin solution.] 

6, Rabies 

On account of its rarity and the exceedingly difficult recognition of 
rabies (lyssa, rabies) in slaughtered animals, it will be but slightly 
touched upon. This disease may occur in all food animals and is usually 
occasioned through the bite of a rabid dog. 

Etiologically rabies requires further research [although it is quite 
generally accepted that the nerve cell inclusions discovered by Negri in 
1903, and termed Negri bodies, are the causative agents] . 

Symptoms and Lesions. — In view of the multiplicity of variation of 
the clinical symptoms of rabies in the different animal species and the use- 
lessness of an extensive description, the reader is referred to the special 
text-books of veterinary medicine. The anatomical changes are not 
characteristic. 

The recognition of a well-developed case of rabies in the living animal 
is not so very difficult, especially if it can be observed for several days. 
In the slaughtered animal, however, a probable diagnosis of rabies can 
only be established, which may be veriiied by the determination of a bite 
from a dog at some previous time, and a comparison of the clinical symp- 
toms reported. In the dog, suspicion is further incited by the presence 
of indigestible material (wood, straw, hair, cloth, etc.) in the otherwise 
usually empty stomach ; the intestinal tract is also generally free from nor- 
mal food stuffs. The absence of any other distinct organic disease 
which might be the cause of the symptoms also supports the diagnosis 
of rabies. 



282 Chap. VII. Abnormal Conditions and Diseases, etc. 

Absolutely certain establishment of diagnosis is obtained by subdural, intraocu- 
lar, or intramuscular inoculation of the substance of the central nervous systen) 
into experiment animals. Histologically the diagnosis may be made by the demon- 
stration of Negri bodies. Negri bodies are round, oval, or pear-shaped struc- 
tures, situated in the interior of the large ganglia cells of the central nervous sys- 
tem; they assume a dark red color on staining with eosin-methylcne blue solution, 
while the cells and cell-nuclei appear blue. In the section for the treatmer,t of 
rabies at the Royal Institute for Infectious Diseases in Berlin, the diagnosis of 
rabies is accepted on the finding of the Negri bodies without recourse to animal 
inoculation. 

Jiidi:;incitf. — As the meat of rabid animals is dangerous to health and 
unfit for food, it should be condemned. Although transmission of rabies 
has not been observed to result from ingestion of meat frtmi rabid ani- 
mals, the disease is nevertheless possible if inoculation occurs while 
handling the meat. According to v. Ratz, the virus of rabies remains 
active for 13-24 days after death of the animal. 

A^terinar}^ police measures with rabies are the same as with anthrax, 
e. g., report of cases, forbidden slaughter, destruction or removal of the 
cadaver so it can do no harm. 

In the incubation stage of the disease slaughtering of domestic ani- 
mals, with the exce])tion of cats and dogs, is not prohibited, and the meat 
may also be utilized after reiuoval of the bitten area. 

[In accordance with V>. A. I. Order 150, Regulation 13, section 7, 
carcasses of aniiuals affected with rabies should be condemned.] 

7, Glanders 

Spontaneous glanders (lualleus) is an exceedingly infectious disease 

of solipeds, but may be transiuitted to sheep, goats, dogs, cats, and various 

other animals, especially man. Of the food animals, cattle are iiumune, 

while hogs are nearly so. The disease is produced 

^,^ I ^^,j ^ by the glaiiders bacillus discovered by I.offler and 

-'''-' i>\ ,/' I '^ Schiitz. 

'^ > M I* \'^~ hacfcrio!oo;y. — I he Bacillus mallei (Fig. 12b) is immotile, 

2 microns long, 0.3 micron wide and frequently arranged 

, .,?; V^' Glanders j,^ pairs. Sporulation does not take place. The staining 
bacilli from a pure • , , i- 1 1 i- ^ t ■•m 1 • -i- 

culture X 730 diam- ''"^ "* accomplished, accordmg to Loffler, by using amlm 
eters. After Weich- aqueous gentian violet for 5 minutes, to which has been 
selbaum. added the same quantity of potasium hydrate solution 

(1:10,000). Next dip in acetic acid solution (1:100'', to 
which has been added a few drops of tropiiolin solution, and then wash in water. 
Potato culture is characteristic; at a temperature of 37-5° C. for two days it 
shows a yellow homogeneous growth, which later turns dark brownish-red and 
assumes a honey-like appearance. 



Infectious Diseases of {'"ood Animals, etc. 



283 




I'i^'. 127. N.'isal sei)liim of a horse .showing ulcers 
and a scar of glanders. After Osferlag. 



Palhoi^cncsis. — 'I'he glanders bacillus gains entrance in s()li])e(ls in 
most cases by way of the digestive apparatus ; next in order through the 
abraded skin. The infection occiu-s rarely by way of the air passages. 
Only in very severe infections do the bacilli pnjduce changes- or lesions at 
the point of entrance (iiitestinal mucosa). As a rule they are disseminated 
by the lym])hatic or blood stream and pnjduce diseased ])rocesses embol- 
ically in the most remote organs. There will form either millet to ])ea- 
sized, subei)ithelial nodules (nodular glanders), or diffuse cellular infil- 
trations of the mucous membranes (infiltrated glanders). Disintegration 
of the nodules of the mucous membranes causes ulcers with a yellowish 
infiltrated base, which 
raj^idly enlarge. Heal- 
ing of the ulcers with 
radiating cicatrices may 
also occur ( h^ig. 127). 
The nodules nodes, and 
diffuse glanderous 
growths in the interior 
of the organs are partly 
light-gray and abundant 
in cells, partly opaque. 

yellowish-white, caseated or a])])roaching su])])uration, ])artly also of 
grayish-white firm consistency. 

In infection of the skin (farcy, cutaneous glanrlers) there form, 
])arlly in the papillary ])(jrtion, i)artly in the subcutis, ra])idly disintegrat- 
ing nodes, which give rise t(; abscesses. iM'om these abscesses a glander- 
ous lymphangitis develo])S. 

All glanderous ])rocesses are associated with specific inllammation of 
the lym])hatic glands, which is characterized by inllammatcjry swelling, 
formation of nodules, areas of degeneration and chronic inflammatory 
proliferation of connective tissue, which extends to the neighboring tis- 
sues, resulting in coalition of the glands with the surrounding tissues. 

Symptoms and Lesions. — Of the various symptoms of chronic gland- 
ers, which is frequently recognized with diflficulty in the living animal — 
acute glanders not cc^ming into consideration in inspection — the following 
are of particular im])(jrtance on ante-mortem examinatitjn : Nasal dis- 
charge, which is irregular ; adhesive mucus which is gray or greenish- 
yellow, may be mixed with a clear catarrhal secretion ; nodules or ulcers 
or cicatrices on the mucous membranes of the nose ; diffuse enlargement of 
the submaxillary lymphatic glands, which later a])])ear painless, nodular, 
hard, and attached to the maxilla; nodes, ulcers, ctjrded lym])hatics in 
the skin, and glanderous phlegmc^ns of the latter. 



284 



Chap. VII. Abnormal Conditions and Diseases, etc. 



The anatomical changes correspond to the clinical symptoms, as above 
described, from the v^ery beginning of the disease. Aside from the 
changes in the skin and the nasal and accessory cavities, especial atten- 
tion should be directed to changes in the lungs (embolic glanderous nod- 
ules (Fig. 128), glanderous growths sometimes of considerable magni- 
tude). Furthermore, emboli occur particularly in the liver, spleen, kid- 
neys, testes, muscles, heart brain, and bones. The above-described lesions 
will also be found in the lymph glands. 

The anatomic recognition of glanders is of especial importance. The 
glassy-gray, transparent, or translucent appearance of the glanders nod- 




Fig. 128. Old glanders nodule from the lung; a, central necrosed portion; 
b, innerniost cellular capsule; c, connective tissue capsular layer, x 30 diam. 
After Ostertag. 



ules, their red area and involvement of the corresponding lymph glands 
(swollen and nodular on section), have been emphasized by Ostertag. 
Schiitz has also called attention to chromatotexis of the pus cells in glan- 
ders, in which, during progressive cell necrosis, the chromatin of the 
nuclei is broken up into fine granules. A bacteriological and cultural test 
is indicated in all suspected cases, which are to be immediately turned over 
to the veterinary police authorities. The work of practical meat inspec- 
tion does not permit of animal experiments, as a rule. 



Infectious Diseases of Food Animals, etc. 285 

In order to avoid confusion with other diseases, there must be con- 
sidered parasitic kmg- nodules (calcareous and fibrous nodules) ; small 
multiple areas or processes- in traumatic pneumonia ; embolic lung nodules 
in pyemia and strangles tuberculosis, actinomycosis and botryomycosis of 
the lungs, leukemia, colt distemper and nasal catarrh. In all of these dis- 
eases the characteristic glanderous lesions Vvill be absent, or similar find- 
ings will be found to difTer on comparison. 

Judgment. — Upon the recognition of glanders in the living animal, 
its slaughter is to be prohibited and the necessary sanitary precautions 
left to the veterinary police. The meat of glanderous animals is to be 
declared unfit for food as it is dangerous to health. 

• From a veterinary police standpoint there must be considered 
the compulsory reporting and killing of the diseased animals, the latter to 
be done under the direction of the regular veterinarian ; also the removal 
of the cadaver which is not to be skinned. 

Great care in handling glanderous or suspected animals is urgently 
advised. 

[Solipeds are not slaughtered as food animals in the United States, 
and as glanders is chiefly a disease of solipeds it is of little importance in 
meat inspection in this country ; the disease, however, may be trans- 
mitted to sheep and goats, and it is only natural that animals showing 
lesions of glanders should be condemned.] 

8, Foot and Mouth Disease 

This peculiar afifection of cloven-foot animals, also called aphthous 
fever, is a febrile disease starting with vesicles or blisters on the mucous 
membranes of the digestive apparatus and outer skin. The afifection more 
frequently occurs in swine and cattle. Sheep, goats, and wild cloven-footed 
animals are seldom affected. It may be transmitted to cats, fowls, and 
human beings. 

The exact cause of this disease is not known, but the virus is filterable 
and is exceedingly contagious. 

Pathogenesis. — The initial symptoms of the infection is a slight inter- 
nal fever, with rapidly forming vesicles. In cattle the latter appear on the 
lips muzzle, all parts of the buccal mucous membrane, between the claws, 
on the pads of the hoofs and around the coronary band. Exceptionally 
these erosions are also found at the base of the horn, udder, vulva, peri- 
neum, and on the scrotum of the male. In sheep and goats there appear 
most frequently very small vesicles between the claws ; very seldom are 
lesions found in the mouths of these animals. Swine are first affected in 
the interdigital space and around the supernumerary digits ; later small 
vesicles are noticed on the muzzle and snout. 



286 



Chap. VII. Abnormal Conditions and Diseases, etc. 



These rapidly appearing blisters soon burst, leaving a red, moist ero- 
sion. These erosions, as a rule, heal very rapidly and are covered by 
shreds of epithelium from the edges. In very severe cases the claws may 
drop off, and further the tendons of the digits may become affected by 
extensive suppuration, or suppurative arthritis may develop with accom- 
panying septicemia or pyemia. 

The disease usually takes a malignant course in suckling animals, 
which generally die from inflammation of the stomach and intestines ; 




Fig. 129. Cysts and ulcers on the gums, the latter also on the muzzle of a cow 
afifected with foot and mouth disease. After Hutyra and Marek. 



besides a malignant type of disease is also observed in older animals dur- 
ing certain periods of the plague, when the animals die of apoplexy or 
with manifestations of an intoxication in connection with a violent type of 
diarrhea. 

Symptoms and Lesions. — Besides the appearance of vesicles, there is 
lameness, an affection of the buccal mucous membranes and dribbling of 
saliva. In cattle the latter appears thick and tenacious, containing large 



Infectious Diseases in Food Animals, etc. 287 

bubbles. This salivation may be absent in cases where the eruption and 
formation of vesicles are on the posterior parts of the buccal mucous mem- 
brane in which cases the animals swallow the saliva. Besides inappetence 
there is a characteristic "smacking" noise of the lips, which is caused by a 
fast in and out motion of the lips. The other symptoms of this disease 
appear according to the previously mentioned development of the 
disease. 

The anatomical changes are in accord with the development of the 
disease and include moist erosions which may be followed by complica- 
tions such as suppuration and ulceration of the joints and feet. 

In the virulent form of this disease the lesions present themselves 
very differently, according to the clinical manifestations. Severe gastro- 
enteritis, multiple embolic myocarditis, parenchymatous or amyloid 
degeneration of the heart, and other indications of blood poisoning are, 
however, seldom absent. 

The recognition of typical cases of foot and mouth disease is not 
difficult. In the early stages it may not be easily recognized, and in cer- 
tain conditions the disease may only be diagnosed in the slaughtered ani- 
mal. The slaughtering of "suspects" should preferably be carried out in 
abattoirs so that an accurate diagnosis can be established and the rapid 
eradication of the disease accomplished. In the formation of vesicles on 
the dorsum of the tongue, it should be noted that the fungiform papillae 
remain standing apparently intact in the eroded places. (Leutsch.) 

Other lesions of the oral cavity, which may be confused with foot 
and mouth disease are: 

I. Traumatic injuries to the epithelium of the mouth. 
II. Chemical and thermic injuries. 

III. Superficial actinomycotic lesions. 

IV. Pseudo-aphtha (Leutsch) or erosive stomatitis (M. Miiller). 

V. Benign stomatitis; stomatitis bovis specifica (Ostertag and 
Bugge, Hess, Peters, Hajnal [Stomatitis oidica]). 

The first two, as a rule show irregular destruction of the mucous 
membrane or deeper tissues. The actinomycotic erosions, which are char- 
acterized clinically by very slight sensitiveness, appear as sharply cir- 
cumscribed, mostly rounded defects of the mucous membrane with 
brownish-red base, from which flat, reddish, button-like proliferations 
gradually protrude like mushrooms. 

In pseudo-aphtha or erosive stomatitis, the lesions range in size from 
a pea to a penny and commence as flat elevations on the mucous mem- 
brane of the mouth. Small amounts of saliva dribble from the mouth, 
but the appetite is not destroyed ; later these elevations change into super- 
ficial ulcerations. Occasionally fever and depression accompany this dis- 
ease. The origin of this affection is not known. 



288 Chap. VII. Abnormal Conditions and Diseases, etc. 

Erosive stomatitis ononidea, according to Mtiller, is produced only 
by eating Ononis spinosa, or 0. repens, and, as a rule, is accompanied by 
inappetence. 

The benign stomatitis can be transmitted to calves, and otherwise 
corresponds to pseudo-aphtha. In the benign buccaul eruptions, described 
by Hess, papules form on the nuicous membrane and border of the lips 
in sizes ranging from a hemp-seed to a pea, in the center of which appears 
a quickly bursting vesicle. After this bursting occurs, superficial ulcers 
are observed. The general health of the animal is not disturbed and the 
disease is not transmissible. 

The following hoof diseases enter into consideration in diiJerential 
diagnosis : 

(i) Animals transported over hard and stony roads are, as a rule, 
affected with hardening of the pad of the hoof, which occurs uniformly 
on all four feet. 

(2) Contusions of the feet in hogs are not infrequently seen, 
mostly in but one foot, which shows infiltration of blood without vesicles, 
or a small blood blister on the coronary band. 

(3) Swelling of the coronary band and pad, due to long standing on 
wet ground. 

(4) Infiammation of the interdigital space, especially foot-rot in 
sheep, but there are no vesicles present. 

Jiidginciit. — The meat of animals affected with this disease should 
not, as a rule, be condemned on account of the disease itself, On the 
other hand, the diseased parts must be scalded on account of the danger 
of spreading the disease to animals and man. In febrile cases and com- 
plications, the clinical appearance and anatomical lesions are decisive in 
the utilization of the meat. 

From the standpoint of veterinary police, compulsory notification of 
the disease should be observed. The hide should not be permitted to be 
moved from the premises until dried unless a direct shipment is made to 
the tannery. Only the veterinary inspector is to decide on this question, 
as well as on the disposition of the affected parts. In consideration of the 
easy dissemination of the disease by the inspectors themselves, the great- 
est care is advised. 

[Foot and mouth disease does not exist at the present time in the 
United States, and therefore it does not concern the meat-inspection serv- 
ice of this country.] 

9, Variola 

Of the pock-like diseases which occur in all animals that are slaugh- 
tered for their meat, the pox of sheep and the vaccination pox of calves 
are of importance. 



Infectious Diseases of Food Animals, etc. 289 

(a) Sheep Variola 

Shec]) pox, which has hcen absent in Germany for a number of years, 
has recently reappeared. It is produced by an easily disseminated, filter- 
able virus, whose pathogenicity varies. It is probable that it is taken into 
the system through the air passages. 

Pathogenesis. — After a period of 6 or 8 day.s' incubation, the clinical symptoms 
of sheep variola appear, beginning with fever, debility, loss of appetite, suppurative 
conjunctivitis with swelling of the lids, severe muco-purulent nasal and pharyngeal 
catarrh, and foul odor from mouth and nose. After a day or two there appear 
red, round, or oblong, nettle-rash-like excrescences (Roseola variolosa according to 
JJutyra and Marek) in the skin of those portions of the body which are devoid of 
wool or only slightly woolly, such as the vicinity of the eyes, cheeks, lips, alse nasi, 
inner part of thighs, under surface of tail, lower chest, and posterior part of the 
abdomen. 

In the normal course of the disease pimples develop in these spotted area.s, 
which may increase at their base to the size of a penny {Stadium papulosum). 
From under the surface of the papules exudes a tenacious fluid which soon forms 
vesicles (S. vesiculosum) , containing a yellowish or sliglitly reddish fluid. 
By the 6th or 7th day this becomes cloudy and purulent {S. pustulosum, S. suppura- 
tionis) . A crust or scab (.S". crustosum) follows desiccation of the vesicle, which 
dries and later falls off. 

As the skin and subcutis become edematously infiltrated at the diseased areas 
tliere occurs swelling of these portions of the body, which may be especially marked 
at the head and extremities. 

In some epizootics the pustular stage is absent at first and during the further 
course of the disease develops slowly. 

Although the constitutional condition of the sheep improves with the decrease 
of the eruption, severe catarrh of the mucous membranes will remain in some cases, 
followed by catarrhal pneumonia. A sweetish, nauseating odor emanates from 
these animals; they cease to feed, and finally succumb to the disease. 

Among other complications there are of especial significance the appearance of 
extensive hemorrhages (Variola hemorrhagica), the confluence of the pox, and the 
development of gangrenous pox, in which septicemia or pyemia leads to fatal results. 

The symptoms and lesions in the live animal are as above described. 
In the slaughtered animal we find corresponding lesions in the skin and 
the subcutis of the mucous membranes, where pock vesicles may also 
appear and give the sign of only slight or of severe general constitutional 
involvement (pyemia or septicemia). 

Judgiiteiif. — If sheep are slaughtered while suffering from variola, 
which rarely occurs, the meat may under most favorable circumstances be 
admitted as impaired in value. In complications, especially extensive sup- 
purations and gangrenous or ])utrid pox, the meat is to be condemned as 
unfit for food. If the pox are healing and tlie nutrition of the sheep is 
good, the meat is serviceable for food. 
20 



290 Chap. VII. Abnormal Conditions and Diseases, etc. 

From the standpoint of the veterinary poHce regulations, compulsory 

notification is required and the disposition of the hides should be in 

accordance with the instruction applying to hides from animals affected 

•with foot and mouth disease, great care being necessary on accouut of the 

easy manner in which pox contagion is spread. 

(b) Coiupox 

While the spontaneous appearance of cowpox from a meat-inspection 
standpoint is insignificant, the vaccination pox of calves, which is artifi- 
cially produced in special institutions for the purpose of preparing vac- 
cine lymph for protective vaccination of mankind against smallpox, 
deserves special mention. Following the slaughter of calves from which 
lymph of vaccine vesicles is taken as above mentioned, the carcasses are 
inspected, but they do not offer any ground usually for condemnation. By 
way of exception a febrile intercurrent, intestinal catarrh, with ensuing 
deterioration of the flesh, causes this class of meat to be considered of 
inferior quality. 

Imperfect scarification on the lower abdomen, leads occasionaly to 
gelatinous infiltration of the subcutaneous tissue and of the superficial 
muscular layer, in which case the altered portions, with the adjacent lymph 
glands, must be rejected as unfit for human food. 

[According to B. A. I. Order 150, Regulation 13, section 6, carcasses 
of vaccine animals, when affected as described under Regulation 11, sec- 
tion 3, should be condemned.] 

10, Tetanus 

By tetanus is understood a specific infectious disease, the exciting 
cause of which produces in the body tonic contractions of the transversely 
striated muscles, through the formation of toxic substances acting on the 
nervous system. Tetanus appears in all food animals and especially in 
horses and lambs. 

Pathogenesis. — The Cause of Tetanus. — The tetanus bacilli or their 
spores penetrate a wound of the skin or mucous membrane of the body, 
multiply in the coagulated blood or in the necrotic tissue of the wound 
without passing through the blood, form spores, and produce toxins, 
tetanotoxin, tetanolysin (Ehrlich) which are carried through the blood 
and lymph, as a result of which there is an increased reflex excitability of 
the spinal cord and nerves, with consecutive tetanic muscular contraction. 

The tetanus bacilli (Fig. 130) are 3-5 microns long, and 0.3-0.5 microns wide, 
motile, anaerobic, and as soon as their terminal spores are formed appear as stick- 
pins in shape. They stain by the ordinary stains and also by Gram's method. 

Symptoms and Lesions. — From clinical appearances there is only to 
be mentioned the progressive stiffening of the muscles, which following 
tetanic contractions, appear as hard as boards. The condition begins fo 



Infectious Diseases of Food Animals, etc. 



291 




prevail in the head as trismus and spreads out more or less rapidly to the 
muscles of the limbs. With this there are present , excitability, great fear, 
frequent sweatings, and increased respiration. 

The post-mortem findings are generally negative. In advanced cases 
there may appear evidences of imperfect bleeding; the blood is blackish- 
red and improperly coagulated, ecchymoses appear on the serous and 
mucous membranes and also on the heart. 
There is also parenchymatous degeneration 
of the liver, heart, kidneys, and muscles, 
certain groups of which show a diffused 
dirty red, bluish-brown, soft or cooked ap- 
pearance. Hypostatic pneumonia may be 
present. 

The recognition of tetanus is as difficult 
and even impossible after slaughter as it is 
easy during life. 

It may be mistaken in animals slaugh- 
tered in advanced cases for septicemia, 
hemoglobinemia, suffocation, certain cases 
of morbus maculosus and cerebro-spinal 
meningitis, but each of the diseases men- 
tioned may be differentiated from tetanus 
by one or more of their specific symptoms. 

Judgment. — Because the tetanus bacilli do not pass through the 
blood, the meat of animals suffering from tetanus when slaughtered' early 
so that only one or a few groups of muscles are diseased, can be marked 
as fit for consumption after rejecting the possibly affected meat, but it is, 
however, of inferior quality, when improper bleeding or other slight 
changes (fetid odor and taste, deviation in color, consistency, and keeping 
quality) are in evidence. If there exist improper bleeding in a higher 
degree or degeneration of the parenchyma, the meat should be declared as 
unfit for consumption because of the high degree of deterioration. The 
tissue around the supposed point of entrance of the bacilli must also be 
condemned. 



Fig. 130. Tetanus bacilli 
with spores in various stages 
of development; 4 days old 
agar culture. Carbol-fuchsin 
solution. After Hutyra and 
Marek. 



According to Kitasato, the tetanus toxin is broken up and destroyed by cook- 
ing at 65° C. 

[According to B. A. I. Order 150, Regulation 13, section 8,.4:arcasses 
of animals affected with tetanus should be condemned.] 



11, Malignant Edema 

Malignant edema is an acute febrile wound infection which appears 
spontaneously in horses, cattle, and sheep, and less often in other food- 
producing animals. 



292 



Chap. VII. Abnormal Conditions and Diseases, etc. 



A particularly prominent form of malignant edema is the so-called 
parturient symptomatic anthrax, the careful study of which, by Albert and 
Carl, has demonstrated with great certainty that genuine symptomatic 
anthrax cannot develop in this form (Hutyra and Marek). 

Pathogenesis. — The causative factors of edema are ubiquitous and appear nor- 
mally in the intestines. They are slender bacilli 3-5 ^ long, 0.8-1 ^ wide (Figs. 131 
and 132), with rounded ends (thus differing from anthrax bacilli) and possess 
slight motility. They form chains and flagella, are anaerobic, and therefore do not 

Fig. 131 

Fig. 131. Bacilli of malignant edema. 
Cover-glass smear preparation stained with 
methylene blue, x 500 diameters. 

Fig. 132. Bacilli of maligant edema. Peri- 
toneal exudate from a guinea pig. Cover- 
glass preparation stained with fuchsin. x 
1,000 diameters. After Hutyra and Marek. 

appear in living blood. After death they wander out of the intestines in'.o the portal 
blood in case the carcass chills very slowly. On that account they may be found in 
■ the spleen after 24 hours ; and, under such conditions, they form centrally located 
spores in the blood, which are easily stained, but not by Gram's method. 

After entrance of the bacilli into the connective tissue, there develops an edema 
infiltrated with gas bubbles, the reabsorntion of which causes fatal constitutional 
disease. 




The clinical symptoms are manifested by quickly progressive, dough- 
like, hot swellings, which afterward show crepitation, and also strong 
febrile reaction. 

Lesions. — Yellow gelatinous infiltration of the affected connective tis- 
sue and of the surrounding muscles, together with infiltration of these 
areas with fetid-smelling gas bubbles are observed ; the parenchyma is 
occasionally not affected, but sometimes, however, it is degenerated ; by 
way of exception, there is a spleen tumor or swollen spleen. In cases 
where the disease originates in the uterus, the latter is slightly contracted ; 
its walls are edematous and the mucous membrane is swollen with the 
destruction of the affected cotyledons. The connective tissue of the small 
pelvis is edematously infiltrated. 

For recognition of malignant edema, it is necessai"y to take into con- 
sideration all morphological and biological characteristics of the bacilli of 



Infections Diseases of Food Animals, etc. 293 

malignant edema; nevertheless their presence is not decisive, because 
they can spread easily into the body of an'animal from the intestines after 
death. 

It can especially be mistaken for : 

1. Symptomatic Anthrax. — Here the foul odor of the edematous 
swellings is absent. The bacilli of symptomatic anthrax form only end 
spores and do not grow in filaments. The appearance of blackleg in cer- 
tain sections of the country is to be considered, and also the fact that the 
muscles are only occasionally attacked by malignant edema. 

2. Anthrax. — In malignant edema there are the above-mentioned 
morphological characteristic of the bacilli, their absence in blood, and fail- 
ure in inoculating rats and guinea pigs. They do not grow on potato 
and gelatin media. Besides those differential characteristics mentioned 
there is no crepitation in the edematous swellings of anthrax. 

3. Inflammatory Edema. — This does not present crepitation. 

4. Sttbcutaneoiis Emphysema. — In this case fever is absent. 
Judgment. — Although the meat is not injurious to health, it should 

be declared as unfit for food, principally on account of objectionable alter- 
ations in the meat. Only seldom, in early slaughtered cases, can the ques- 
tion of passing the meat as of inferior quality arise after the rejection of 
the edematous areas. 

[In accordance with the meat-inspection regulations of the United 
States, carcasses afifected with malignant edema should be condemned, 
not alone on account of the possibility of dissemination of the bacilli all 
through the carcass by the blood, but also on account of the changes of the 
meat produced by the high febrile condition of the animals in the course 
of the disease.] 

12< Septicemia 

By the collective term "septis"'^ is designated, from a purely scientific 
point of view, a severe hemotolysis brought on through the entrance of 
infective material (microorganisms or ultra-visible contagions) into the 
blood. (Sepsis in a narrow sense.) 

For practical meat inspection those hemotolytic diseases of sepsis 
which are caused by the entrance of products of pathogenic bacteria 
(toxins and toxalbumins) into the blood or by the combination of both the 
former and latter conditions, that is through the infectious material as 
well as through toxins, are to be considered under the term septicemia. 
(Sepsis in a broad sense.) 

It can also deal with a bacteriemia or a toxinemia, and mixed cases 
as toxemic bacteriemia. 



^ The designation "ichorus" or "putrid blood poisoning," for sepsis, should 
not be used any longer in consideration of the etiology of the latter. 



294 Chap. VII. Abnormal Conditions and Diseases, etc. 

The presence of toxins produced in the blood through the activity 
of saprophytic bacteria, causes toxinemia, which is called putrid intoxi- 
cation or sapremia in contradistinction to septicemia. 

The term sepsis includes the entrance of all pathogenic bacteria and their tox- 
ines into the blood channels ; and it includes also the spreading of purulent matter 
through the blood, though the disease of the blood termed pyemia constitutes a 
special affection when metastatic suppurative foci develop in consequence of bac- 
terial dissemination. 

The combination of septic toxemia and pyemia is called septicopyemia. 

It is evident that the other microparasitic blood infections which develop under 
the manifestation of sepsis and which bear distinct names (anthrax, erysipelas, etc.), 
on account of the well-defined characteristics of their causative factors as specific 
blood infections belong in the broadest sense to septic diseases. 

Pathogenesis. — -Although there are still no definite results in funda- 
mental investigations for exciting causes of all the septic diseases of food- 
producing animals, yet certain forms of the streptococci and staphylococci 
should be etiologically considered here. Doubtless also other bacteria 
(for instance, certain forms of coli, Gartner's enteritidis bacillus) cause 
septic conditions, and it is probable that such conditions are also favored 
by other bacteria (proteus) under certain symbiotic relations. 

The point of entrance for the exciting causes of sepsis can, in many 
cases be recognized as a local disease (wounds, inflammations, and disin- 
tegrating foci), while obscure infections do, however, occur without any 
noticeable place of inoculation. The further effects of the deleterious 
microbes result from the above explained facts, the principal factor being 
always the formation of toxic substances, which almost invariably cause 
a fatal termination of the disease. 

Symptoms and Lesions. — The clinical as well as the anatomical 
appearances of septic diseases are frequently so little apparent that an 
especially thorough examination and careful estimate of every single 
symptom are absolutely necessary. Of the clinical phenomena the follow- 
ing are to be given special mention : 

1. High fever (in cattle 41-42° C.), beginning occasionally with 
rigor, which is absent only in very exceptional cases. During the last 
stage of the disease, normal and subnormal temperatures appear. 

2. Cardiac weakness and greatly accelerated, wiry pulse. 

3. Severe psychical depression, muscular weakness, tremor, and 
paralysis of certain nerve regions, which however in most cases are hard 
to establish. 

4. Dirty red, blurred coloring of the visible mucous membranes, 
showing petechia and ecchymosis. 

5. Drying up of the milk during lactation. 



Infectious Diseases of Food Animals, etc. 295 

6. The presence of an injury or of a suppurating wound upon the 
surface of the body where the septic disease originated or discharge of an 
ichorous nature through a natural orifice of the body (especially from the 
vagina), but such areas as described above may be absent. 

In the post-mortem examination there are especially to be observed : 

1. Cloudy swelling of the heart, liver, and kidneys, which is some- 
times accompanied by fatty degeneration. The latter should not be mis- 
taken for normal fatty liver of animals which are in an advanced stage of 
pregnancy or have recently given birth to young. 

2. Swelling and serous infiltration of most lymphatic glands. These 
may also be permeated by isolated hemorrhages or hemorrhagic foci. 

, Lymph stasis, following obstruction in the circulation (as for instance in 
traumatic pericarditis), should not be mistaken for marked saturation of 
the lymph glands in the dependent portions of meat that is hanging up. 

3. Petechia — ecchymosis and suggillations — under the serous mem- 
branes and in the mucous membranes, for which the so-called asphyxia- 
tion hemorrhages should not be mistaken (page 215). 

4. Bloody imbibition of the intima of the great blood vessels. 

5. Blood-stained serous exudates in the thoracic and abdominal 
cavities. 

6. Imperfect coagulation of the blood. 

7. Insufficient rigor mortis and imperfect bleeding. 

8. Soft, withered, watery character of the meat, which has a singu- 
lar, generally dark color, and sometimes develops a peculiar sweetish 
repugnant odor, which as a rule appears only during the cooking test. 

9. Alkaline reaction of the meat, which is permanent (this should, 
however, be compared with page 38). 

10. The existence of a center of origin for the septic disease, which 
in many instances may be present only as an insignificant lesion, and some- 
times it cannot even be detected. 

11. The duration of the course of the disease must be in certain 
relation to the intensity and the time of supposed infection. 

The recognition of sepsis, from the pronounced view of the disease, is 
not difficult, especially if a point of origin can be demonstrated, but in new 
cases and where infection is obscure, the diagnosis may be difficult. In 
such instances all changes, even insignificant ones, must be observed and 
their relative importance carefully weighed. There should always be 
taken into consideration the fact, correctly pointed out by Ostertag, that 
the more prominent pathological changes in the internal organs, by which 
the marked symptoms may be explained, are very often absent, yet sepsis 
is present regardless of the fact that these lesions are absent. In doubtful 
cases, and especially where immediate slaughter becomes necessary, a sec- 



296 Chap. VII. Abnormal Conditions and Diseases, etc. 

ond examination must be made after 24 hours. In some instances the 
method proposed by Basenau (page 136) may be of aid in reaching a 
diagnosis. 

The septicemic diseases of cattle appear chiefly in the following 
forms, only the most important characterisic symptoms of which are 
mentioned here : 

1. Septic Polyarthritis of Calves, following septic infection of the navel 
(septic paralysis in calves).— Flaccid inflammation of the navel, with dirty red., 
offensive secretions, very often accompanied by ichorous disintegration of the umbil- 
ical vessels, serous arthritis with gelatinous infiltration of the periarticular portions, 
especially of the tarsal and carpal joints, as well as of the radio-ulnar, hock, and 
hip joints, tumefaction and marked saturation of the muscular lymph glands, and 
sometimes icterus are present. 

2. Hemorrhagic Enteritis of Calves, which runs a rapid course, so that in some 
cases no cloudy swelling of the parenchyma is observed. Bloody diarrhea, blood- 
stained intestinal contents, and acute hemorrhagic enteritis, especially of the small 
intestines with swelling and bloody saturation of the mesenteric lymph glands are 
observed. The disease is probably a form of scour of calves (page 319). 

3. Septic Enteritis of Cattle, similar to the foregoing, but incomplete with 
regard to symptomatology. Every inflammation of the intestines of cattle, accompa- 
nied by severe febrile and general disturbances, must be looked upon as suspicious 
of sepsis. 

4. Septic Metritis of Cozvs, which follows retention of fetal membranes, or 
as result of an injury to the genital passages. In the latter there are mostly diph- 
theritic patches and ulcers. Septic metritis is accompanied by pelvic peritonitis, satu- 
ration of the pelvic connective tissue and marked infiltration of the sacral and iliac 
b'mph glands. It has been emphatically stated by Albrecht that not all febrile dis- 
eases of cattle caused by metritis are of septic nature from the beginning, and with 
timely slaughter and good bleeding the meat may not be injurious to health. Per- 
haps Albrecht's case was one of general sapremic affection, caused by secondary 
retention (page 300). On the other hand, great precaution is necessary when cat.le 
are slaughtered in an advanced stage of the disease, in case of incomplete bleeding, 
or of extensive gangrenous alteration of the genital passages. 

5. Septic Pleuritis and Peritonitis, which are caused by external injuries, or 
coming from the intestines, respectively, or by bursting of abscesses or ichorous 
processes. 

6. Septic or Traumatic Pericarditis. — This affection appears only in cattle, and 
is caused by penetration of foreign bodies through the stomach into the pericardium. 
All cases of pericarditis, however, are not accompanied by offensive secretions of 
septic nature. 

7. Septic Mastitis of Cozvs. — This is distinguished from other inflammatory 
conditions of the udder by its rapid progress, accompanied by severe general 
symp'.oms. It may affect at least one-half of the udder or the entire udder which is 
considerably swollen, dark-red and hot, with corresponding swelling and infiltration 
of the lymph glands of the udder. Extension of the inflammation to the abdominal 
wall and to the surface of the inner thigh may follow. 



Infectious Diseases of Food Animals, etc. 297 

8. Septic zvounds and injuries of any kind and origin may lead to septicemia. 
Wounds of the joints are predisposed thereto, as are also deep puncture wounds with 
improper drainage, as well as wounds on the digits, with extensive destruction 
of tissue. 

9. In classifying morbus maculosus (petechial fever, purpura hemorrhagica) 
of horses and cattle under septicemic forms, I agree with Ostertag, Hutyra, 
Marek, and others in regard to the most striking symptoms of the disease, i. e., 
hemorrhages and marked changes in the parenchyma indicate that morbus macu- 
losus is a septic intoxication. 

Judgment. — From experience gained in cases of poisoning of per- 
sons by meat, it is essential that carcasses of all food animals affected with 
sepsis should be considered as unfit for human food on account of their 
-danger to health and disposition made of them in such manner as would 
cause no harm. Inasmuch as the toxalbumins of septicemia bacteria are 
not positively destroyed by heat, the use of this meat even in a cooked con- 
dition is not permitted. 

The practice proposed by Basenau. namely, the feeding of fresh and 
cooked meat to mice to prove that it is poisonous, cannot be recommended 
universally on account of the circumstances frequently accompanying sus- 
pected cases of septicemia. 

[In accordance with B. A. I. Order 150, Regulation 13, sections 5 and 
i8a, carcasses showing lesions of septicemia should be condemned.] 

13, Pyemia 

Pyemia is a disease of the blood caused by microorganisms entering 
into the circulation and resulting in the development of metastatic 
abscesses, or suppurative osteomyelitis (osteomyelitis suppurativa). It is 
described as a purulent blood poisoning. 






••• • .;:__ o 

Fig. 133 



Fig. 133. Staphylococcus pyogenes. Stained 
preparation from a pure culture, x 1,000 di- 
ameters. After Weichselbaum. 






Fig. 134. Streptococcus pyogenes. Stained • / '• 

preparation from a pure culture. x i 000 di- 
ameters. After Weichselbaum. Fig. 134 

Pathogenesis. — The pus-forming microorganisms which are the 
exciting causes of pyemia, are principally staphylococcus pyogenes aureus 
(micrococcus pyogenes Fig. 133) and streptococcus pyogenes (Fig. 134), 



298 Chap. VII. Abnormal Conditions and Diseases, etc. 

which usnally enter the blood by a local suppurative focus direct or 
through the lymph channels, but the disease may also develop from an 
obscure origin. 

As long as bacteria circulate in the blood they will produce fever ; 
elimination therefrom follows partly through their having been deposited 
in the various organs, of which according to the point of inoculation, the 
lungs and liver come first into consideration, then the kidneys, spleen, bone 
marrow, joints, muscles, brain, etc. The results of suppurative emboli 
differ according to the character of the pyogenic bacteria. In cases where 
the beginning of embolic suppurative foci are characterized by the appear- 
ance of grayish-yellow areas that are surrounded at first by a red zone. 
they may be considered principally streptococcic emboli. From these foci 
abscesses develop in the interior of the organs, their growth being 
arrested by encapsulation and later the abscesses become consolidated by 
drying and calcification. Accordingly, recovery from pyemia is possible, 
and is not infrequent in food animals. The disseminated pus-forming 
organisms, however, may also produce suppurative inflammation of the 
serous membranes. 

When, on the other hand, the changes described below occur in the 
marrow, they should be considered staphylococcic emboli (Ostertag).. 

Symptoms and Lesions. — Clinically, the disease can only be diag- 
nosed as pyemia by the presence of local suppurations, accompanied by 
intermittent high fever and depression. If, in addtion, there is inflamma- 
tion of the joints and of the bones, or if aft"ections of the lungs or kidneys 
are manifested, then the seat of the metastatic abscesses are indicated. The 
pathological lesions are the result of the pathogenic effect of the bacteria. 
It is to be especially observed, however, that as long as actual pyemia 
exists, there are always manifest appearances of severe infection of the 
blood and particularly cloudy swelling of the parenchyma, punctiform 
hemorrhages in the kidneys, lymph glands, and under the serous mem- 
branes ; these are present in addition to the above-mentioned punctiform, 
puriform foci, or suppurative inflammation, and changes in the bone 
marrow. 

The recognition of pyemia in slaughtered animals is not difficult 
when the disease is well developed. In the first stages, diagnosis will have 
to be established even without the presence of the metastatic suppurative 
foci, through the other manifestations of a general blood infection, if local 
suppuration or local osteomyelitis be visible ; when doubtful, the unfavor- 
able should always be accepted. 

Although pyemia may develop as a conseqvience of any local suppura- 
tive process, the following forms, whose symptomatology deserve only 
slight mention, may be particularly noted : 



Infectious Diseases of Food Animals, etc. 299 

1. Pyemic Polyarthritis, occurring especially in calves (suppurative lameness 
in calves, suppurative inflammation of umbilical vein). It can also exist without a 
conspicuous affection of the umbilicus, as a disease of the carpal, tarsal, radio-ulnar, 
hock, and femero-tibial joints vi^ith corresponding general symptoms. Attention is 
also called to the fact that numerous instances of recovered cases of pyemia in 
calves have been noted. 

2. Hemorrhagic and Purulent Osteomyelitis is often of obscure origin. At 
first there is hyperemia of the bone marrow with hemorrhages therein, but later 
puriform softening of the bone marrow occurs with suppurative ulcerations in 
the joints. 

3. The Pyemias folloiving Swine Plague and Caseous Pneumonia, especially in 
sheep, goats, and calves, present no special characteristics. 

4. The Pyohacillosis of Pigs, under certain conditions, may run the course of 

pyemic cachexia; but symptoms of acute intoxication are not prominent. 

■ 

Judgment. — As the causes of suppuration in animals and man are 
identical, and the meat of pyemic animals contains pus-producing bacteria 
with their metabolic products (toxalbumins) , and as such meat has been 
shown to be injurious to the health of mankind from numerous poisonings 
which have occurred through infection, it must be designated as unfit for 
human food, for even boiling does not remove its injurious properties. 

It is not yet clear whether the toxicity of the meat from pyemic ani- 
mals is due to the pus-producing organisms alone, or more to the intro- 
duction of other microorganisms ( enter itidis bacilli, coli forms) from 
the intestines into the many juices of the body as a result of the severe 
constitutional disease. 

When metastatic abscesses occur in the animal body, without any 
constitutional symptoms — processes which therefore do not belong to 
pyemia as such, and can be viewed only as possibly healed pyemia — the 
portions of the carcass not infected are always to be considered as harm- 
less. It is not necessary that there always exists a distinct encapsulation 
of the abscesses; but in no case should there be present any signs of blood 
poisoning. As to whether in the cases of multiple abscess formation the 
utilizable meat portions are to be declared of impaired value, depends on 
the nutritive condition of the animal, the extension of the metastases, 
their intensity and location, as well as to any changes in the meat (varia- 
tion of odor and consistency from that of normal meat) . In certain cases 
(for instance, suppuration of the body lymph glands and joints, muscular 
abscesses) it may be necessary to consider the meat as unfit for food on 
account of its deteriorated or spoiled condition. 

For hypophrenic abscesses, see page 210. 

Contamination of meat with pus from the heart or abdominal veins, in which 
pus enters after death from rupture of hypophrenic and hepatic abscesses, has been 
described by Lohbeck, Reimers, Haffner. 



300 Chap. VII. Abnormal Conditions and Diseases, etc. 

[According to B. A. I. Order 150, Regulation 13, sections 5 and 
i8a, carcasses showing lesions of pyemia should be condemned.] 

14, Putrid Intoxications 

Putrid intoxication or sapremia (Ostertag) recently separated from 
the clinical diagnosis of septicemia is more rarely observed in meat inspec- 
tion since septic processes are frequently associated therewith. Sapremia is 
an intoxication of the blood produced by resorption of the products of 
metabolism of saprophytes (saprophytic bacteria) which settle in a por- 
tion of the organism not engaged in nutrition (necrotic areas thrombi, 
hematoma, retained secretions and excretions), and produce decomposi- 
tion. The bacteria, it is true, produce constitutional disturbances, but this, 
however, is not marked, as the toxins present in the blood are destroyed 
by active, healthy cells. Parenchymatous affections are absent or are 
insignificant on post-mortem of sapremic animals, but they invariably 
show a putrefactive process of bad odor. 

In traumatic pericarditis of cattle there may be occasionally observed 
pure clinical examples of sapreiuia. In these cases there will frequently 
be found marked changes in the heart and pericardium with very mal- 
odorous masses of exudates, showing no signs of fever during life, nor 
presence of any other pathologic lesions. In such cases the meat is not to 
be considered injurious to health, though of impaired value, in view of 
its diseased condition. Occasionally the meat will be found edematous, 
or organic disease of other organs may be present and for this reason it 
will be necessary sometimes to declare the meat as unfit for food. 

On account of the possibility of transmission of the putrid odor from 
the exudative masses in the pericardial sac to the rest of the meat, the 
boiling test should always be applied. 

In retained placenta of cattle there may develop at the beginning a 
purely sapremic constitutional disease, which may lead to recovery under 
proper treatment in spite of slight or moderate fever. In these cases the 
meat of animals slaughtered early and showing no signs of sepsis is 
harmless. However, on account of complications with inflammatory 
lesions of the uterus (septic metritis), care should be exercised. 

[Carcasses showing putrid intoxications are judged in the meat 
inspection service of the United States on the same lines as infection with 
septicemia or pyemia, and therefore should be condemned.] 

Erysipelas of Hogs. — Although more recent observation shows tlie possibiHty 
for transmission of erysipelas of hogs to man under certain conditions, this form 
of septicemia will be treated in the following section on account of its relation to 
other diseases. 



Infectious Diseases Characteristic of P'ood Animals, etc. 



301 



B, Infectious Diseases Characteristic of Food Animals But Not 

Transmissible to Man 

1. Swine Erysipelas 

Erysipelas of swine, also called rotlauf and bacillary erysipelas, is 
an acute, frequently occurrinj^ e])izootic disease, ])roduced by a specific 
bacillus (Bacillus rhusiopathuc), discovered by Loff^er. 

According to certain Oerman investigators, the disease which will 
later be described as urticaria belongs etiologically to erysijK'las, but is, 
however, to be dififerentiated from the latter for practical reasons.' 

Palhoj^encsis. — The erysijjelas bacilli, which may also develop ecto- 
j^-enously, i^ain admission to the orj^anism through the digestive tract or 
*lirough wounds of the skin. Perha])s they are regular jjarasites in the 
body of the hog (intestines, tonsils), which may under 
certain conditions become pathogenic, according to the 
recent observations of Olt, Ijauermeister, and Jensen. 

'I'lic erysipelas I^acilli are aljout 0.8 U) 1.5 jx, )on%; o.i to 0.2 jj, 
wide, and stain with basic anilin stains; also by Gram's method 
(Fig. 135). in nutritive gelatine media at room temperature stab 
cultures will assume the characteristic bottle-brush shape after 
3 or 4 days (I'^ig. 136). 'J'he bacilli are not particularly resi.stent 
to atmospheric influences; Init while Petri's observations, whicii 
have been practically verified by Stadie, showed that the usual 
preparation and conservation methods of handling meat arc not 
sufficient to kill the organisms, heating in steam kettle aj^jja- 
ratus destroys them. 

After i)assing through mice, the erysipelas bacilli lose their 
virulence for hogs (Prellner). 



V{vm 



m 



it?C; 




FiK- 135 



Fig. 136 



The bacilli, after gaining en- 
trance into the bkxjd, multiply rap- 
idly, ])roducing toxins whose ac- 
tion extends ])articularly to the 
blood, the larger organs of the 
body, and the nervous system. In 
the majority of cases the disease 
runs a fatal course, and on account 
of its dangerous character fre- 
quently leads to the emergency 
slaughter of the animal. 

Symptoms and Lesions. — In the 
living animal, redness of the skin is 

particularly noticeable, occurring in spots on the inferior ])art of the abd'j- 
mcn, inner thigh surfaces, breast neck and ears. The red spots spread 
rapidly, turn blue or brownish-red and are evenly rliscokjred. At the same 

[' If urticaria were a chronic form of erysipelas, one would naturally expect to 
find some acute cases of swine erysipelas ; but, although the former prevails to a 
considerable extent in this country, the latter has never been observed.] 



Fig. 135. Bacilli of swine erysipelas. 
Dried blood preparation. x 500 di- 
ameters. 

Fig. 136. Frysipelas bacilli, stab 
culture in gelatine. 5 days old in room 
temperature. 



302 Chap. VII. Abnormal Conditions and Diseases, etc. 

time, there exist severe general disturbances, such as fever, debility, ano- 
rexia, constipation followed by diarrhea, accelerated breathing, etc. 

The pathological lesions vary with the stage of the disease during 
which the animal was slaughtered. It frequently happens that when the 
hog is being scalded redness of the skin becomes even more intensified, 
and may extend deep into the subcutaneous fatty layer ( Speckschicht) . 
In addition there is but slight "bleeding out," insufficient rigor mortis, 
enlargement of the spleen, parenchymatous degeneration of the liver, heart 
and kidneys, which latter usually show hemorrhagic inflammation, hemor- 
rhages beneath the serosa and in the cortical layer of the kidneys, hemor- 
rhagic gastro-enteritis, swelling of the intestinal lymph follicles, enlarge- 
ment and marked transudation of the mesenteric glands and other lymph 
glands, which may also show punctiform hemorrhages. In very severe 
cases, and especially in cases slaughtered when approaching death, the 
musculature appears sero-sanguinolent, grayish-red, and has a tendency 
to decompose rapidly. 

Endocarditis valvularis verrucosa may be observed as a sequel. 

The above-mentioned symptoms furnish sufficient basis for the recog- 
nition of the disease, the demonstration of the erysipelas bacillus being 
best effected through specimens taken from the splenic pulp. Inoculated 
mice or pigeons succumb after 3 or 4 days, and a culture will develop the 
already mentioned characteristic properties within the same period of time. 

In order to avoid confusion in the recognition of erysipelas there 
must be considered : 

1. Swine Plague and Hog Cholera. — ^Both resemble in the acute 
stage during life the course of erysipelas ; in the slaughtered animal, how- 
ever, the anatomical findings will differ decidedly. 

2. Urticaria. — This disease during life produces characteristic skin 
macules, while on post-mortem examination, there is an absence of the 
lesions in the viscera. At most there may be present enlargement of the 
spleen or liver, if the animals be slaughtered at the height of the disease. 

3. Erythema of Thermic or Mechanical Nature. — These are con- 
fined to the skin of certain portions of the body only, and in mechanical 
causes hemorrhages occur ; internal lesions are absent. 

4. Heat-stroke (Hitzschlag), which frequently occurs in the sum- 
mer transportation of hogs, is accompanied by bluish-red discolorations of 
the skin, the latter, however, being mostly hypostatic ; on post-mortem 
examination indications of suffocation will be found. 

5. Wound-erysipelas ; the latter being almost always restricted to 
the head, is usually unilateral and characterized by severe infiltration of 
the subcutis of the parts affected. Kleinert has observed two cases in 
hogs of more extensive er3^sipelas of the head, breast, abdomen, outer sur- 
face of the thighs, back, and ears, associated with putrid metritis (sup- 
purative metritis). 



Infectious Diseases Characteristic of Food Animals, etc. 303 



6. Anthrax, which is very rare 
jn hogs, occurs generally as gloss 
anthrax, and demonstration of the 
bacilli confirms the diagnosis. 

For judgment of erysipelas in hogs 
see page 308. 

Urticaria. — Nettlefever, or diamond 
skin disease, of hogs is a macu- 
lar hemorrhagic dermatitis, accompa- 
nied by febrile constitutional symp- 
toms, and runs a mild course. Since 
*t.orenz, Jensen, Schiitz, Luepke, etc., 
have demonstrated erysipelas bacilli 
in the skin, the disease is classed with 
erysipelas, although the other symp- 
toms differ from it.^ 

The clinical findings are character- 
ized by flat, red, round, or rhombic 
skin plaques, which rapidly increase in 
size and number. In the slaughtered 
animal the plaques usually present a 
rhombic shape (Fig. 137), and extend 
deep into the cutis and even into the 
subcutis. Diseases of internal organs 
are absent in slight cases, but severe 
cases may be associated with splenic 
tumor and hyperemia of the liver. 

The recognition of urticaria is easy ; 
to avoid confusion, it will be neces- 
sary to consider the 
diseases mentioned in 
discussion on differen- 
tial diagnosis of erysipe- 
las. 

Judgment. — The dis- 
eased skin areas should 
be removed and no fur- 
ther restrictions placed 
on the meat. 
Fig. 137 




Side of a hog' with urticaria 



[^ In this country, urticaria has never been found associated with the erysipelas 
bacillus, and furthermore swine erysipelas does not exist in the United States. The 
urticarial disease found in post-mortem work is caused by vaso-motor changes, 
resulting from the consumption of certain food stuffs, as in other species of animals.] 



304 Chap. VII. Abnormal Conditions and Diseases, etc. 

In Prussia this disease is subject to the same veterinary regulations as erysip- 
elas, according to the decree of March 11, igo2. 

[According to B. A. I. Order 150, Regulation 13, section 21, hogs 
affected with urticaria may be passed after detaching and condemning 
the skin.] 

2< Swine Plague 

Swine plague or swine septicemia (Loffler, Preisz) is a subacute or 
chronic contagious disease of hogs, frequently occurring associated with 
hog cholera in the same animal. The pure forms of swine plague are 
characterized by severe pneumonia, accompanied by pleuritis and pericar- 
ditis and their complications and sequellse. 

According to Ostertag, every inflammation of the lungs in hogs 
which cannot be proven to be caused by foreign bodies, parasites, tubercle 
bacilli or pus-bacteria, is to be suspected as being swine plague. 

Pathogenesis. — Swine plague is caused by bacteria, which are usually 
oval in shape, but occasionally bacillus-like {Baeillus suisepticiis) . They 
belong to the group of bacteria causing hemorrhagic septicemia (Hueppe), 
i. e., rabbit septicemia (Koch). 

The bacteria (Fig. 138) are about i jx long, 0.5 ^ wide, oval, immotile, and 
take a bipolar stain with gentian violet. According to Preisz, this is best accom- 
plished when stained with aqueous fuchsin, and then decolorized with alcohol or 
weak acetic acid. These bacteria are found in the blood as well as in the dis- 
eased tissues. 

The bacteria of swine plague enter the body through the respiratory 
organs or by the digestive tract , and from thence to the blood, producing 
a rapid or gradual general infection similar to septicemia. The lungs are 
the sites of predilection for their destructive action. In accordance 
with the virulence of the swine plague bacteria there are various "types" 
noted, but they do not differ morphologically. 

The course of the disease may be peracute, simulating hemorrhagic 
septicemia ; acute, as a multiple caseous pneumonia ; and chronic with 
the symptoins of a catarrhal pneumonia, the latter being the most com- 
mon form. Recovery may occur, leaving more or less extensive 
pathologic lesions, such as adhesions between the pleurae, and between the 
lungs and pericardium, fibrosis of the lung tissue, and caseous, seques- 
trated areas. 

When swine plague and hog cholera occur in the same animal, Preisz 
holds that in acute cases the latter infection is primary, while the former 
is only secondary. 

Symptoms and Lesions. — The clinical symptoms depend on the 
course of the disease ; for at one time they are of general septic infection, 
while at others those of pneumonia will predominate. The special patho- 
logic conditions are : Severe pneumonia in various stages of hepatization 



Infectious Diseases Characteristic of Food Animals, etc. 305 

with multiple necrosed areas, hemorrhagic, fibrinous pleuritis and peri- 
carditis, and occasionally peritonitis may be associated. During the height 
of the disease there are also marked enlargement and redness of the 
lymph glands with hemorrhages in them as well as in the kidneys, degen- 
eration of the large organs, and occasionally icterus. 

It may prove quite difficult to recognize swine 

plague in the living animal ; therefore diagnosis in 

-■^•;-''pj, some cases cannot be made with any degree of cer- 

. .. '}<\, tainty except when marked pneumonic symptoms 

^^''''4^$'-^^^^-. (cough) are present. In slaughtered animals diag- 

^jv= - - --|^^g nosis is verified by the above-mentioned conditions, 

• Fiff 138. Swine ^^ bacteriological examination, and through inocu- 

plague bacteria. Dried lation of white mice, which die in from one 

blood preparation. x,,, j>.- /-\i- ^r r- 

SCO diameters. ^° three days time. Only m acute forms of swme 

plague are bacteria found in the blood, while in 
chronic cases they are only present in parts affected though according to 
Junack, it is impossible to find bacteria in about one-third of all the cases 
diagnosed as chronic swine plague. Certain types of the Bacilhis siiiscpti- 
ciis develop in addition to short forms, long threads which, however, do 
not occur in the animal body. In dififerential diagnosis the following dis- 
eases come into consideration : 

1. Stvine Erysipelas, especially in acute cases of swine plague, where 
red coloration of the skin also occurs, but is present only in those parts 
of the body involved by the disease. In swine erysipelas there are no 
characteristic pulmonary changes of swine plague ; and finally, the bacter- 
iologic and bacterioscopic findings will establish the nature of the 
infection. 

2. Hog Cholera in its initial stages, when the intestinal changes are 
not yet well developed or when mixed infection exists, which rapidly 
terminates the life of the animal. 

3. Tuberculosis after the inflammatory changes have run their 
course. In swine plague there are no characteristic multiple infections of 
the lymphatic glands as in tuberculosis, the areas of caseation or necrotic 
areas of the lungs being without new formation of granulation tissue at 
the periphery ; nor are those peculiar secondary nodules of tuberculosis 
present in the vicinity. 

4. Verminous Pneuuionias which occur en masse and may be read- 
ily recognized by the presence of parasites. 

5. Traumatic Pneumomas. — These lead to gangrene, as a rule, and 
are found in the main lobes of the lung. 

Regarding the judgment of swine plague carcasses see page 308. 



3o6 Chap. \'1I. Al)iun"inal Conditions and Diseases, etc. 

ryobacillusis of Pigs. — Pyobacillosis, pyemic cachexia of pigs, occurs in young 
hogs quite frequently as a nonacute disease, produced by the Bacillus /yyoiiciics suis, 
which is viewed by Grips, Nieberle, and Glage as belonging to swine plague. The 
disease is characterized by catarrhal changes or suppurative catarrhs of the intestines 
and ;iir passages, associated with sero-iibrinous inflammation of the pleura, pericar- 
iliuni and peritoneum, as well as suppurative or caseated changes in the lungs, with 
hc])ati7.ation and atelectasis in their vicinity. A generalization of the pyobacillus and 
suppurations in the joints, bones, tendon sheaths, muscles, body lymph glands, 
mammae, etc., are also observed. 

In the judgment of pyobacillosis, its form of appearance and the nutritive con- 
dition of the animal must be taken into consideration. As the latter is usually 
greatly impaired, the entire carcass will usually have to be condemned, and where 
the suppurative changes are generalized, the same holds good also. 

As pigs are rarely slaughtered while affected with pyobacillosis but as a rule 
die of the disease, the importance of meat inspection is not significant in this disease. 

[In the United States carcasses of pigs affected with pyobacillosis should be 
judged on the same principles as pyemia, and therefore shoidd be condemned.] 

3, Hog Cholera 

Hog- cholera, or swine fever, is an infections (Hsease of hog\s which 
runs partly an acute and partly a chronic course, characterized by marked 
lesions in the digestive a])paratus and an infiltration of the lymph appara- 
tus, especially of the lymphatic glands. In many instances the disease 
occurs complicated with swine i^lague. 

Pathogciicsis. — Ihitil quite recently the Hacillns suipcslifcr, whose 
portal of entry is the digestive tract, has been accepted as the cause of 
hog cholera, but recent investigations indicated that the disease is due to 
an ultramicrosct)pic filterable virus, and thai the sajirophytic hog cholera 
bacilli bring about changes only secondary to the conditions produced as 
a result of the presence of the invisible virus. This is the view of de 
Scliweinitz and Dorset, McFadyean, Hutyra, Ostertag. and Stadie. 
Schreiber-Landsberg takes issue with these writers and still adheres to 
the old theory that the Bacillus siiipcstifcr is the exciting cause of the 
German hog cholera, and that it acts maiidy through the medium of its 
metabolic products. Schreiber considers the filterable virus the toxin 
which is formed by Bacillus siiipcstifcr infection, which acts as an aggres- 
sin furthering the infection and mobilizing the hog ch(^lera bacilli in the 
body. Ostertag and Stadie hold this view of Schreiber's as incorrect and 
disproved by their experimental results.^ 

The Bacillus suipestifer (Fig. 139) is a short, motile, typhoid-like bacillus with 
rounded ends, 1.2-1.5 yu. long and 0.6 fx wide. The bacilli lie singly or arranged in 
pairs and possess flagella. The latter may be indistinctly visible if the specimens are 



[1 Hutyra believes that the invisible filterable virus is responsible not only for 
so-called hog cholera, but for swine plague as well, and that the respective bacilli 
of these previously considered separate diseases are merely secondary invaders.] 



Iiif(-cti(Mis hiscascs rharactcristic of I'oo'l Animals, etc 3f)7 

stained with Lof/icr's fla^f:!!;! stain. 'Ilic bacilli stain best with J.offlcr's alkaline 
methylene blue solution, '1 he swine pest bacilli are most readily fmnu] in the mesen- 
teric lymph glands. In mor.e advanced necrotic changes resulting from hog cholera 
the necrosis bacilh' also cjjutc info consi'l'ration H'ang, f'rcis/., fCarlinski, Cjsterlag, 
Kitt). 

As a rcsiill. of ilx- invasion of flic or^^anisni l>y the 
h(jg cliolcra h;i'illi ilici-c occur, accorfliii^ to the viru- ^m^EPrW^^ 
lencc oi the hacilh and the resistance of the tissues, f' '" ''. >''\ '' '»' 
either hemorrhagic intestinal inllaminatifms with infec- : '-'--> 
tion of the );lood and a rapifjly Icfli;i.l ronrsf, <)r chronic ^ •• ' , 

forms with marker! rjeslrtiction of fhc infcstin,-il ra.n--il 
c^jjd mesenteric lymph j^^Iands. ,^ 

Symptoms and Lesions. — 'i'he clinical symptoms in. pjg, ,,^, n,,^^ 
the flevelopment of ho^ cholera vary, in acute cases cholera Ijacilli. 
there are fever, diarrhea, red petechia of the skin, tx^y diameters. 
with exanthemata on the ears, nose (snout), tlic inner 
surfaces (A the thighs and aroimd the arms, sii]>purative conjunctivitis, 
great weakness anr| debility. In the less rajyid course variable symj^toms 
arise (constipation and malo'lorous, green diarrhea), those of the intes- 
tinal canal prerlominatin^; also emaciation, weakness, chronic skin exan- 
themata with crust foruiation. When complicated with swine plague, 
sym];toms of clironic Inn^ rliseasc with dys]>nea, cou^li, etc., may be 
observed. 

The ]>athologic lesions in tlie peracute cases corrcspotid lo flios'- of 
hemorrhagic septicemia with crou];ous and necrotic changes of tlie intes- 
tinal muco.sa. In less acute types there is a specific affection of the colf>n, 
the mucosa of which presents crouixms-diphtheritic changes, (Jf;rrespond- 
ing to the solitary and multiple lymjjh follicles of the intestinal mucous 
membrane, lliere are milbt to li;iz'lnnf si/.r-d d'-finitely'circumscribed or 
confluent caseous, yellow, button-like jjrojccting ulcerations covered with 
a crust-like dirty coat (big. 140 j. On removal of the latter, the irregular 
ulcers are exposed. The ijefj-cecal valve especially is, as a rule, pathog- 
nr^monically enlarged anrl caseated (<'Jstertag). The abr^ve-mentioned 
changes are in some cases recfjgnizable ow the exterior of the intestine as 
l^ronn'nent yellr^vvish-gray sjjots. In arldition to this, it is by no means 
uncommon to find certain jjortions of the intestinal wall f|uite rigid, hyper- 
trrj];hic, or even th(; entire large intestines may be grown together into 
tough, thick rf;lls. If such is the case there will, as a rule, be found 
fibrous adhesion to the peritoneum also. Similar characteristic areas 
and ulcers develoj; also in the small intestines. The mesenteric glands are 
always swollen, u\ a flark bluish-red or pale color, and jjartially or entirely 
ca.seated. Similar changes are al.v> usually observed in the cervical, anrl 
occasionally in the j^elvic lym];h glands. r!rrjupoiis-di]jhtheritic mem- 



3o8 



Chap. VII. Abnormal Conditions and Diseases, etc. 



branes may also be fonnd on the mucosa of the tongue, cheeks, gums, 
tonsils, pharynx, and epiglottis. The spleen may be enlarged and injected, 
and the kidneys present petechial hemorrhages in the cortex. 

If a multiple caseous pneumonia is present, it is an indication of a 
complication with swine plague. Whether the metastatic bone and joint 

caseations and suppurations in the chronic 
cases are a part of the descriptive symp- 
toms of hog cholera or of pyobacillosis, 
still remains to be proven. 

Recognition of the developed chronic 
forms of hog cholera is not difficult, but 
the following diseases must be considered 
in differential diagnosis : 

1. Szvine Erysipelas in acute and pera- 
cute cases of hog cholera. In addition to 
the absence of the swine erysipelas bacilli 
there is the absence of the intense hemor- 
rhagic nephritis and the presence of intes- 
tinal lesions. 

2. Tuberculosis of tlie Digestive Appa- 
ratus. — Differentiation from this disease is 
indicated by the extensive destruction of 
the intestinal mucous membrane, the total 
caseation of the lymph glands, the absence 
of the characteristic tubercular nodules in 
the vicinity of the lesions, the absence of 
calcification in the affected lymph glands, 
and the absence of tuberculous changes in 
other organs. 

Judgnien.t of the Meat in Swine Erysipe- 
las, Szi'ine Plague, and Hog Cholera. — In 
view of the fact that the meat of these dis- 
eased animals has frequently been used for 
food without ever having incurred any im- 
pairment or injury to man it can hardly be 

classed as injurious to health; in individual cases, however, the following 

should be considered : 

1. The entire carcass is unfit for food as soon as marked substantial 
changes (congestion of blood, serous infiltration, degenerations, yellow 
discoloration) of the musculature or fatty tissue is observed, or when 
marked emaciation has occurred. 

2. In all other cases, with the exception of the chronic forms of 
swine plague and the sequelie of this disease and those of hog cholera, the 
carcass in all three of these diseases is to be considered fit for food, but 







Fig. 140. Portion of large 
intestines with lesions of hog 
cholera. 



Infectious Diseases Characteristic of Food Animals, etc. 309 

subject to certain conditions. For veterinary sanitary reasons and partly 
in consideration of the presence of the causative agents in the blood of 
cases of swine erysipelas, swine plague, and the acute forms of hog 
cholera, the meat and fat are to be boiled steamed (rendered into lard), 
or pickled. The portions affected by the disease should be condemned. 

3. In case of slow chronic forms of swine plague, without disturb- 
ance of the general condition, or sec_[uelae of this disease (adhesions, cica- 
trices, capsulated caseated areas, etc.), or of hog cholera (caseation of 
the mesenteric lymphatic glands, adhesions of intestines, formation of 
cicatrices in the intestinal mucosa), only the affected portions of the meat 
are to be condemned and destroyed. The remainder of the carcass is 
fit for food without any restriction. 

[In accordance with B. A. I. Order 150, Regulation 13, section 10, 
paragraphs 1-4, carcasses which are well nourished, showing only slight 
limited lesions of hog cholera or swine plague may be passed ; those show- 
ing well-marked and progressive lesions shall be condemned, while those 
carcasses in which the lesions are more extensive than those of carcasses 
to be passed, yet not sufficiently severe for condemnation, may be ren- 
dered into lard, provided they are cooked by steam for four hours at a 
temperature not lower than 220° F.] 

4. With regard to judgment of urticaria, see page 303. 
Veterinary Police Regulation. — In compliance with the decree of the 

Imperial Chancellor, dated September 8, 1898, every case of swine ery- 
sipelas, swine plague, and hog cholera is to be reported, in all parts of the 
Empire, to the police authorities at the nearest point to where they occur. 
Nonveterinary inspectors may, under the inspection regulations of the 
Imperial meat-inspection law, inspect only light forms of swine erysipelas, 
provided the local government permits the exercise of this function (for 
instance, the Kingdom of Saxony prohibits such action). 

4, Contagious Pleufo-'pneuinonia of Cattle 

This epizootic disease of the lungs is a chronic, contagious pleuro- 
pneumonia peculiar to cattle. [It was eradicated from the United States 
in 1892.] 

Pathogenesis. — The cause of the disease, according to Nocard and 
Roux, seems to be minute, motile microorganisms of indefinite morphol- 
ogy, which enter the lungs by the air passages and gradually produce 
progressive pleuro-pneumonia, beginning in the connective tissue of the 
lungs. 

Symptoms and Lesions. — Since the clinical symptoms of this disease, 
when occurring in isolated cases, can never be diagnosed on ante-mortem 
inspection, they will not be discussed here. 



3IO Chap. VII. Abnormal Conditions and Diseases, etc 

The anatomical lesions, however, are quite characteristic (Plate II, 
Fig", i). The unilateral (left) inflammation of the lungs is superficially 
recognized by a varying grade of pleuritis and the coarse condition of the 
changed portion of the lung, which contains no air. Section of the dis- 
eased area will reveal marked proliferation of the interlobular connec- 
tive tissue, which will be found as thick, gelatinous, intermixed with 
fibrinous, grayish-yellow bands, about 2 cm. wide, separating the com- 
pressed lung lobules and the lobules of the adjoining lung sections. The 
diseased lobules may appear singly or in groups with varying degrees of 
inflammation, while fresh inflammatory lobules will be seen lying beside 
older forms. Hyperemic, edematous and bright red hepatized lobules 
alternate with dark red, liver-like lobules, and with some which show a 
grayish-yellow to grayish-brown color. The latter are cloudy, dry, and 
point to an early stage of necrosis, which may lead to sequestration of 
smaller or larger lung- areas. As a result of the condition just described, 
the lung presents a marbled appearance on section (Plate II, Fig. i). The 
above-mentioned inflammation of the pulmonary pleura extends also to 
the other pleural surfaces, in advanced cases of the disease, and leads to 
extensive fibrin deposits, adhesions, and collections of exudate within the 
pleural sac. 

Pleuro-pneumonia is recognized quite readily when the above- 
mentioned pathologic lesions are present. Only in quite recently formed 
cases will any difficulty of diagnosis be met, and in these great care should 
be exercised on account of the grave consequences which might follow an 
error in diagnosis. 

Pleuro-pneumonia may be mistaken for — 

1. Foreign Body (Traumatic) Piicuiiionia, which occurs either at 
one particular point only or in multiple places, and may also present a 
marbled appearance. Here the foreign body may be demonstrated, how- 
ever ; and in the latter case the widely distributed areas will not suggest 
pleuro-pneumonia. 

2. Genuine Croupous Pneumouia, which however is rare, usually 
occurs on the right side and presents uniform processes throughout. 

3. Heiuorrhagic Septicemia of cattle in the pectoral form. Here the 
rapid clinical course and the anatomically uniform acute pulmonary 
inflammation differentiates it from pleuro-pneumonia. Mice and rabbits 
die of hemorrhagic septicemia within 12 to 36 hours after inoculation. 

4. Contagious Broucho-Pnetinionia of Calves, which occurs as a lob- 
ular catarrhal inflammation of the lung without involving the interlobular 
tissue. 

5. Pnenniononiycosis, which is readily recognized microscopically. 



Infectious Diseases Characteristic of l^'ood y'Vuimals, etc. 311 

Judgment. — Inasniucli as the meat of animals suffering from pleuro- 
pneumonia is not harmful to man as food, it may be declared serviceable 
after removal of the diseased portions, provided emaciation, fever, serosity 
and other conditions of the meat do not impair its value. It would be 
necessary lo condemn the carcass only exceptionally in cases of pro- 
nounced emaciation with serosity. 

|C ontagious pleuro-pneumonia of cattle does not exi.st at the present 
time in the United States and as the regulations governing the importa- 
tion of cattle prescribe a cjuarantine of 60 days, which constitutes the 
longest period for the incubation of this contagion, it is not likely that 
the disease will reappear in this country, and accordingly it is not of any 
^•reat interest in meat inspection.] 

Veterinary Police Regulations. — The occurrence of the disease is to 
be immediately reported and the entire carcass confiscated. Regulations 
require that the lungs be buried at the depth of one meter, and that the 
meat be not removed from the diseased lot until it has been cooled thor- 
oughly, and that the hides should also be retained until they have been 
completely dried, unless they are turned over directly to a tannery. 

5, Blackleg 

Symptomatic anthrax or blackleg may attack cattle, sheep, goats, very 
rarely horses, anfl also hogs, but this infectious disease is usually restricted 
to certain localities. Blackleg is characterized by the formation of gas- 
containing swellings in the subcutis which rapidly .spread. 

Pathogenesis. — Blackleg is caused by anaerobic bacilli, which enter 
the organism through abrasions of the skin or mucous membrane. 

The bacilli measure 3 to 6 /x, in length and 0,5-0.7 /x in width, arc motile as 
long as they have not developed spores, and stain readily; they do not stain by 
Gram's method, however. They are never found in the living blood, but always 
in the subcutaneous anfl intermuscular connective tissue. 

y\fter the l)acilli have gained entrance into the body there develops 
crepitating, rapidly spreading swellings in the connective tissue, espe- 
cially at the neck, shoulders, beneath the breast, thigh, flanks, and more 
rarely at the gums, base of tongue and wall of the pharynx, accompanied 
by severe general febrile sym])toms. 

Symptoms and Lesions. — The symptoms in the living animal corre- 
spond to the above description. Anatomically the subcutis and the inter- 
muscular connective tissue beneath the partly necrosed skin appear of a 
yellowish color, bloody, permeated by air bubbles and of an offensive 
odor, which in many instances is similar to that of rancid butter. At 
these points the musculature is a muddy brownish-red, crepitating, and 
very juicy; the corresponding lymphatic glands contain a bloody, serous 




312 Chap. VII. Abnormal Conditions and Diseases, etc. 

infiltration, are swollen, and contain hemorrhagic areas. The latter are 
also found under the serosa. Sero-sanguinolent extravasations or exu- 
dates in the body cavities and occasionally perirenal and mesenteric bloody 
gelatinous infiltrations are noted. Degenerations of the heart, liver, and 
kidneys occur, while the spleen and blood remain unchanged. 

Blackleg is easily recognized in differential diagnosis. The follow- 
ing diseases must be considered : 

1. Malignant Edema, which need rarely 
be differentiated clinically from blackleg. 
Anatomically attention should be directed to 
the foul necrotic odor of the edematous 
swellings, the more plump morphology of 
the edema bacillus (page 292), which in ad- 
dition possesses spores in the center of the 
organism and not at end, as is the case with 
the blackleg bacillus. The latter do not de- 
velop into threads in the cadaver, like edema 
bacilli. 

2. Anthrax. — The clinical course of this 
Fig. 141. Blackleg bacilli ,. ,.^ -j ui x ^u i r 

with spores. Muscle juice thsease differs considerably from that of 

from guinea pig. Cover-glass blackleg, and in the slaughtered animal the 
preparation. x 1,000 diame- 111 11 ii. i.- n ^i 

ters After Hutyra and Marek blood and spleen alterations, as well as the 

demonstration of the bacillus of anthrax, 
serve to differentiate it from blackleg. 

3. Mechanical Suhcutaneous Emphysema, which clinically and ana- 
tomatically differs entirely, particularly in that it produces no necrosis of 
the skin. 

4. Phlegmons of the subcutis as a result of pyogenous wound infec- 
tion , run a much slower course than blackleg and remain localized. 

Judgment. — If blackleg is found on ante-mortem inspection, or if it 
is even suspected, slaughtering of the animal is to be forbidden. The 
meat of animals suffering from blackleg, although not injurious to man, 
must be condemned on account of the marked substantial changes therein, 
and is not to be considered fit for human food. 

Veterinary Police Regulations. — In this respect blackleg is to be 
treated just like anthrax (see page 281), since in almost all states com- 
pulsory notification is required of all cases that may arise. 

That the so-called "parturient blackleg" is not true blackleg, but a form of 
malignant edema, has already been stated on page 292. 

Reindeer pest is quite similar to blackleg, and this is mentioned on account ot 
the fact that no inconsiderable quantities of reindeer meat are imported into Ger- 
many. In reindeer pest there is found gas formation in the subcutis, the intramus- 
cular, subpleural, and subperitoneal tissues, and especially abundant beneath the 
renal capsule. As compared with blackleg it is found that reindeer pest diffens also 



Infectious Diseases Characteristic of Food Animals, etc. 313 

in the presence of abundant gas formation in the internal organs. The cause of 
reindeer pest, according to Lundgren and Bergman, are aerobic rods, thinner than 
those of blackleg or anthrax bacilli, forming spores either in the middle or at the 
end, and staining by Gram's method. On account of the great similarity to black- 
leg the meat of animals affected with reindeer pest is to be judged like that of 
blackleg. 

[According to B. A. I. Order 150, Regulation 13, section 3, carcasses 
of animals showing lesions of blackleg should be condemned.] 

6, Bradsot 

The disease called bradsot (rapid plague) is an acute infectious dis- 
ease of sheep, which originated in Iceland, Norway, Scotland, and occurs 
in Germany, according to Peters, in Mecklenburg, Pommerania, and 
recently also in Middle Germany (Dammann and Oppermann, R. Froeh- 
ner). It occurs almost exclusively during the winter months, particularly 
in young animals and in its nature it is a gastromycosis. 

Pathogenesis. — The plague is produced by the Bacillus gastromycosis ovis 
(Nielsen), an anaerobic, slender, motile schizomycetes, which stains by Gram's 
method. It forms central or polar spores and is frequently found arranged end to 
end. 

The entrance of the bacillus into the digestive tract produces a hemorrhagic, 
abomaso-duodenal inflammation followed by general infection or intoxication. 

Pathology. — On account of the frequent peracute course of the dis- 
ease clinical symptoms (debility, gnashing of teeth, difficulties of respira- 
tion, coma, tympanitis) are rarely observed. The anatomical changes 
have been described in the pathogenesis. In addition to these, there occur 
occasionally fibrinous infiltrations of the subcutaneous connective tissues 
with gas formation and sero-sanguinolent exudates in the abdominal 
cavity. Decomposition sets in quickly. 

Judgment.— Although, injury to human health is unlikely as the result 
of ingestion of meat from sheep affected with "bradsot," as has been 
noted by certain observers, it is necessary to condemn it on account of the 
severe general infection or intoxication which is present. 

In view of the rapid course of the disease it is not likely that many 
sheep aft'ected with this disease will be brought to abattoirs for slaughter. 

[Bradsot has not been observed in the United States and therefore it 
is of no interest in meat inspection. The occurrence of the disease would 
naturally require a condemnation of the affected carcasses on account 
of the severe infection and intoxication.] 



314 Chap. VII. Abnormal Conditions and Diseases, etc. 

7, Rinderpest (Cattle Plague) 

Cattle plague is an acute infectious disease peculiar to cattle, which 
may be transmitted to other ruminants, and occurs as a severe, febrile 
general infection associated with inflammation of all mucous membranes, 
especially those of the digestive tract. The plague has been extinct in 
Germany for years, but mig"ht readily be carried in again from foreign 
countries. [It has never occurred in the United States.] There is little 
known in regard to the nature of the infectious material. 

Syinptoins and Lesions. — Clinical symptoms: Chills (rigor), high 
fever, marked depression, constipation, and after a few days catarrh of 
all visible mucous membranes, which are stained scarlet red, either dif- 
fusely or in spots (petechia). Difficulty in respiration and dysenteric 
feces occasionally mixed with blood, occur later. The visible mucous 
membranes show erosions, upon which grayish-white crusts appear, and 
when these are cast oh: ulcers become visible. As the animals rapidly 
emaciate, the secretions of the mucous membranes become discolored, pus- 
like, malodorous, and the temperature sinks to subnormal. 

The anatomic lesions, according to Kitt. are : In the primary stages 
hyperemia and catarrhal condition of the mucous membranes, then croup- 
ous diphtheritic exudates with marked hyperemia, particularly along the 
entire digestive tract, and at the orifice of the female genitals ; occa- 
sionally simultaneous croupous exudate in the bronchi occurs. To these 
are added ecchymosis of the heart and exanthema of the skin. The third 
stomach is frequently filled with very dry, powdered fodder ; the gall 
bladder is usually full and distended ; parenchyma degenerated ; muscula- 
ture wasted, soft, and filled with small blood extravasations. 

Diagnosis. — In order to recognize cattle plague, which is exceedingly 
difficult in isolated cases, all of the diagnostic factors will have to be 
most carefully considered, such as the symptom-complex, autopsy findings, 
the course of the plague, and its history. 

It may be mistaken for : 

1. Malignant Catarrhal Fever, in which, however, the mucous mem- 
branes of the head, the respiratory apparatus, and the eyes are particu- 
larly involved, and in which the viscera are intact. It usually occurs 
only enzootically. 

2. Dysentery and Mycotic Enteritis. — Here the intestinal symptoms 
predominate and the other pest symptoms are absent. 

3. Poisoning, Especially Mercnrial and Caustic Poisons. — Here the 
contagion is absent and the generalized croupous-diphtheritic inflammation 
of the mucous membranes is also lacking. 

4. Infections Hemoglobinuria of Cattle (page 256), when on post- 
mortem examination of cattle which have died from this disease ulcers 



Infectious Diseases Characteristic of Food Animals, etc. 315 

and lamellar deposits are found in the abomasuni and duodenum (Hutyra- 
Marek). There is, however, an absence of the changes in the oral mucous 
membranes, the air passages and genitals, while the hemoglobin-containing 
urine will attract attention. 

Judgment. — The killing or slaughtering of animals affected with cat- 
tle plague or those suspected of having this disease is to be prohibited. 
Although the meat of cattle-plague animals has been proven to be harm- 
less to man when used for food, it is nevertheless to be destroyed or 
declared unfit for food on account of the great danger in spreading the 
disease, and is to be buried in accordance with regulations of the rinder- 
pest law of April 7, 1869. 

[Inasmuch as the disease does not exist in the United States there are 
no provisions made in the regulations for the judgment of animals affected 
with rinderpest ; it is, however, self-evident that the occurrence of the dis- 
ease would require condemnation of the affected carcasses with strict 
veterinary police regulations to prevent its spread.] 

8, Vesicular Exanthema of Horses and Cattle 

This contagious disease of the genital organs, which occasionally produces a 
constitutional disturbance, is mentioned here only on account of its veterinary 
police (sanitary) importance. 

Symptoms and Lesions. — Marked redness and swelling of the mucous membrane 
of the vagina, prepuce, and penis, itching, slight discharge and strangury, develop- 
ment of delicately covered vesicles of sizes from a millet seed to a dime, which burst 
and change into superficial ulcers. They form brownish crusts and heal, leaving 
white cicatrices. It is sometimes difficult to observe the symptoms in bulls, since 
only fine erosions and small vesicles appear on the mucous membrane of the pre- 
puce. In severe cases there occur confluent, deeper penetrating ulcers, with suppura- 
tion and foul pus, more marked discharge, and swelling of the surrounding parts 
as well as grave febrile general disturbance. 

Judgment. — The meat of animals afflicted with vesicular exanthema, is 
generally fit for food ; in severe cases, which, however, are rarely brought for 
slaughter, the grade of the disease and complications present decide whether the 
meat is to be declared of impaired value, or to be entirely condemned. 

The veterinary police regulations require report of such cases and retention of 
the diseased portions for examination by the veterinarian in charge. 

[In the meat inspection of the United States carcasses of animals 
affected with vesicular exanthema may be passed for food provided the 
disease has not caused general systemic disturbances and the lesions are 
confined to the genital organs, which should be condemned.] 

For contagious vaginal catarrh, see page 212. 



3i6 Chap. VII. Abnormal Conditions and Diseases, etc. 

9, Hemorrhagic Septicemia (Game and Cattle Plague) 

Game and Cattle Plagtie. — This disease, belonging to the group of 
septicemia hemorrhagica (Hueppe), occasionally occurs epizootically in 
cattle, deer, and black game, and in isolated cases may be transmitted to 
the horse, goat and hog. It appears in pectoral and exanthematous form, 
though both may occur together. 

Pathogenesis. — The cause of this disease (Bacillus [bipolaris] bovi- 
septicus), which simulates that of swine plague, may gain entrance to 
the organism in various ways, corresponding to the above-mentioned 
forms of the disease. According to Dammann and Oppermann a species 
of mosquito {Sinmlia ornata) is the intermediate host in the transmission 
of this affection. The bacilli produce local inflammations, and passing into 
the blood create various changes resembling the course of sepsis. 

Symptoms and Lesions. — In cattle the exanthematous form is the 
most frequent. The clinical symptoms are the rapidly arising warm 
swellings of the subcutis of the head and neck, as well as the oral cavity, 
high fever, and difficult respiration. Anatomically there are sanguino- 
gelatinous exudations at the above-mentioned areas, marked swelling of 
the retropharyngeal and cervical lymphatic glands, cloudy swelling of the 
large viscera and hemorrhages into most organs. 

The pectoral form, which predominates in game, runs the clinical and 
anatomical course of severe croupous pleuro-pneumonia with marked dysp- 
nea. The above-mentioned hemorrhages are never absent. 

In both forms there also exists marked hemorrhagic enteritis, which 
is noticeable clinically by bloody discharges in addition to the severe gen- 
eral constitutional condition. These intestinal forms or symptoms were 
previously described as a special intestinal form of game and cattle plague. 

The positive recognition of the plague intra vitam is oftentimes 
impossible, though per post mortem it is quite easy. The presence of the 
bacteria, inoculation of rabbits and mice, and feeding infectious material 
to birds, causing death to all within 12 to 36 hours, confirm the diagnosis. 

It might be mistaken for : 

1. Anthrax; in hemorrhagic septicemia the marked splenic changes 
are absent, and the blood alterations and anthrax bacilli as well. 

2. Pleuro-pneumonia ; from this the uniform age and synchronicity 
of all the diffuse pneumonic areas in game and cattle plague differ 
considerably. 

3. Malignant Edema, Blackleg, and Cattle Pest (Rinderpest), 
whose differential diagnostic features have already been cited. 

Judgment. — The slaughter of animals affected with hemorrhagic sep- 
ticemia is prohibited, and they are to be treated like those affected with 



Infectious Diseases Characteristic of Food Animals, etc. 317 

anthrax. In some states it is required to report the occurrence of this 
disease. 

In view of the danger in spreading contagion, the entire carcass is 
to be condemned, although the ingestion of the meat by man is not dan- 
gerous to health. 

[According to B. A. I. Order 150, Regulation 13, section 4, carcasses 
of animals affected with hemorrhagic septicemia shall be condemned.] 



10, Malignant Catarrhal Fever of Cattle 

This miasmatic infectious disease peculiar to cattle is characterized 
by marked inflammation of all mucous membranes of the head (inflamma- 
tory disease of the head) and eyes, accompanied by severe constitutional 
and cerebral disturbances. 

Pathogenesis. — The still unknown infectious material aside from the 
above-mentioned symptoms, causes sometimes more extensive affection of 
the respiratory apparatus as well as croupous-diphtheritic inflammation of 
the digestive tract, and occasionally vesicular or nodule-like skin exanthe- 
mata (skin eruptions), while nephritis, cystitis, and colpitis may also 
occur. 

Symptoms and Lesions. — The most prominent clinical symptoms are 
rapidly increasing fever, marked fatigue, and impairment of sensation, 
muscular tremors, inflammation of the mucous membranes of the head, 
particularly those of the eyes, difficulty of respiration, diarrhea, which may 
be mixed with blood, and rapid emaciation. Predominating anatomical 
lesions are catarrhal or hemorrhagic, later croupous and diphtheritic 
inflammation of the mucous membranes of the entire respiratory appara- 
tus and occasionally also involving the digestive apparatus ; great conges- 
tion of blood in the cranial cavity ; marked swelling of the lids, conjunc- 
tivitis, keratitis and even iritis ; enlargement of the spleen and cloudy 
swelling of the liver and kidneys which are usually not marked ; and at 
times nephritis, cystitis, colpitis, and the above-mentioned skin changes 
may occur. 

The recognition of the well-developed cases of malignant catarrhal 
fever is not difficult. For differential diagnosis should be considered : 

I. Rinderpest, in which the affection of the eyes is conspicuously 
absent, and in which the rapid course is characterized by the predominat- 
ing gastric symptoms, while in catarrhal fever the affection of the respira 
tory apparatus is most marked. In catarrhal fever the organs are only 
slightly involved, whereas in animals suffering with rinderpest they are 
greatly degenerated. 



3i8 Chap. VII. Abnormal Conditions and Diseases, etc. 

2. Mycotic enteritis, when the intestinal infection predominates. 
Here are noted, however, the absence of marked depression symptoms and 
changes in the mucous membranes of the head. 

Judgment. — The meat is not injurious to man as food. It may, how- 
ever, have to be condemned in advanced cases on account of the occur- 
ring emaciation and the objective changes in the meat (increased blood 
contents, etc.). In any case, the meat is always to be considered impaired 
in nutritive value. 

[According to B. A. I. Order 150, Regulation 13, section 9, carcasses 
of animals affected with malignant epizootic catarrh and showing gener- 
alized inflammation of mucous membranes shall be condemned.] 

11, Necrotic Stomatitis (Diphtheria) of Calves 

Diphtheria of Calves. — Diphtheria of calves is not related to diph- 
theria in man, and occurs comparatively infrequently as an infectious dis- 
ease with rapid course of development, characterized by the appearance 
of croupous-diphtheritic changes in the mucous membranes. 

Pathogenesis. — The exciting cause of the disease is the necrosis bacillus (Bang), 
which appears in motile rods (1.8-2.4 (jl long, and 0.6 ^ wide), and also in threads. 
Without doubt the bacillus gains admission through wounds or abrasions, where- 
upon it effects its further action by way of the blood. Sepsis may be associated 
with the course of this affection. 

Symptoms and Lesions. — The clinical symptoms are similar to those 
of foot and mouth disease, but in addition, cough, difficulty of respira- 
tion, and diarrhea occur. Pathologically there are noted in advanced 
cases croupous-diphtheritic ulcers on the mucous membrane of the mouth, 
pharynx, larynx; trachea, stomach, and intestinal canal, pneumonic areas, 
and also cloudy swelling of the internal organs. 

Recognition of necrotic stomatitis of calves is based on the above- 
mentioned findings, which are not likely to be mistaken for anything else, 
unless it be foot and mouth disease. 

Judgment. — If the animals are slaughtered in the early stages, the 
meat may be considered as of impaired value, later it becomes unfit for 
food on account of rapid emaciation and general constitutional symptoms, 
which produce such changes as to unfit it for food. The latter is also 
the case when sepsis has occurred. 

The passing of a carcass for food after condemning the diseased parts 
is possible in Germany, as the animals are not usually slaughtered until 
general constitutional symptoms have 'set in. 

[In accordance with meat inspection in the United States, carcasses of 
animals with necrotic stomatitis may be passed if the lesions are onlv 



Infectious Diseases Characteristic of Food Animals, etc. 319 

local in character ; if there is indication of toxemia, associated with ema- 
ciation, the carcasses should be condemned.] 

12, Diarrhea or Dysentery of Calves 

White scours of calves is an infectious intestinal inflammation, which 
may occur also in other sucklings and sometimes appears enzootically. 

Pathogenesis. — The exciting agents of dysentery, according to Jensen, Poels, and 
Joest, are bacteria belonging to the colon group, which are facultatively pathogenic 
and enter the blood from the intestinal tract, producing general infection with spe- 
cial localization in the intestinal canal.i 

There is nothing particular to be said about the clinical symptoms. 
•Pathologically there is emaciation, anemia, reddish blurred injection of the 
mucous membrane of the abomasum and the entire intestinal tube, swell- 
ing of the mesenteric glands, and subserous hemorrhages, the musculature 
being flabby, lusterless, and of a muddy red color. 

With the aid of a microscope recognition of this disease is readily 
accomplished. 

It is apt to be mistaken for — 

1. Acute Gastric and Intestinal Catarrhs, in which, however, the 
course is milder, and in which the signs of blood infection are lacking. 

2. Diarrhea of Septicemia and Pyemia, whose other symptoms, how- 
ever, are usually easy of recognition. 

Judgment. — ^When the calves are slaughtered early in the disease 
their meat may be permissible as food, though being rated as of impaired 
value. If a general infection had already set in, the meat will have to be 
declared im-fit for food, on account of the possibility of its being danger- 
ous to health. Inasmuch as the bacteria are found in the blood and 
rapidly multiply in the carcass (Ostertag), caution is imperative from the 
well-known fact that the varieties of the coli bacteria may assume marked 
pathogenic properties. 

[Inasmuch as white scour in calves represents a general infection and 
since the disease is usually associated with general debility and emacia- 
tion, therefore carcasses thus affected are condemned in the Federal 
inspection service.] 

13. Distemper and Influenza of Horses 

Diseases of horses coming under this classification do not require special notice 
here since they do not necessitate slaughter of the animals, because the diseases in 
question either run a mild course or cause death in severe cases, not bringing int.j 
question the possibility of emergency slaughter. If such an exceptional case should 
arise, however, judgment of the meat will not be difificult, when it is borne in mind 
that septic or pyemic infections may complicate the course of distemper, influenza, 
and pneumonia of horses. 

[1 Nocard, Mettam, etc., consider the cause of this disease to be a pasteurellose.] 



2,20 Chap. VII. Abnormal Conditions and Diseases, etc. 

7. Intoxications and Autointoxications in Slaughtered Animals 

A« Poisoning 

Poisoning of slaughtered animals is only of importance from the point 
of hygiene of the meat when changes have occurred in the flesh as a 
result of the toxic action of the poison, or when the meat itself has been 
poisoned. 

As a rule, poisoning in slaughtered animals is rare. Still the own- 
ers of the animals frequently consider some diseases as such, since the 
layman is inclined to view all suddenly occurring affections as due to this 
cause. Poisoning is usually accidental, the poisonous substances being 
ingested with the food or while searching for food ; or they may be the 
result of improper administration of drugs. 

Regarding the clinical symptoms and patholog}' of various poisonings 
in living animals, text-books on toxicology must be referred to as only 
general remarks may be indulged in here with regard to the findings in 
the slaughtered animals. The following groups of intoxication are to be 
differentiated : 

1. Poisons which exert a pronounced local effect and those which 
primarily affect the parts with which they come in contact are relatively 
easy of recognition. To these belong among others, caustic, acids, alkalies 
and salts ; phosphorus, arsenic, catharadin, and also insect and snake 
venom. Marked inflammation, swelling, hemorrhages, and eschars, espe- 
cially in the digestive tract and on the skin, occur at the points of contact 
with the poison, but the main effect of the poison is usually secondary and 
is to be sought in disturbances of function of the more important body 
organs. 

2. Some of the blood poisons combine with the hemoglobin of the 
red cells (carbon monoxid, hydrocyanic acid, sulphuretted hydrogen) and 
reduce their functional power as carriers of oxygen ; while others (nitrites, 
iodin, potassium chlorate, pyrogallol, picric acid anilin, carbon bisulphide 
and others) destroy the red cells and form methemoglobin. As a result 
the blood will appear light-violet to cherry-red and even chocolate-brown 
in color. These changes may not be marked, however, if the animals have 
been slaughtered early on account of the serious effect of the poison on 
the central nervous system. Urine of a red to dark-red color will doubt- 
lessly be present in severe intoxication by poisons of the latter group. 

3. In nerve and heart toxins, anatomical changes as a rule are not 
demonstrable, in spite of extreme nervous irritation or paralysis. 

For the purpose of meat inspection, another group might be added 
to the three foregoing — 



. Poisoning 321 

4. Those which develop marked odor and thereby reveal their 
presence in the slaughtered animal, such as chloroform, ether, alcohol, 
petroleum, chloral hydrate, camphor, ethereal oils, phosphorus, carbolic 
acid, etc. The effect of these drugs would be similar to one of the three 
classes already mentioned. 

As recognition of poisonings and their essential causes may be quite 
difficult in certain instances, it will be possible to establish only a probable 
diagnosis in many cases, unless an exact chemico-analytical examination is 
made. The latter would rarely be practicable for purposes of meat inspec- 
tion on account of the amount of time recjuired, and may then fail in some 
cases. 

The judgment of this class of food animals is dependent upon the 
separation of the meat proper in its narrow sense from the viscera. Of the 
latter, the stomach and intestinal canal will always have to be condemned 
as dangerous to health. It has been shown that the other viscera are 
harmless in a number of instances, while in doubtful cases, however, it is 
necessary to consider the nature of the poison and the probable course it 
pursues in the organism. In one case the udder of a cow was found dan- 
gerous to health, the animal having been fed large quantities of veratrum 
album. In subcutaneous administration of poisonous substances, the site 
of injection and its vicinity, as well as the associated lymphatic apparatus 
up to and including the nearest lymph glands, are to be removed. 

Careful observations by Frohner and Knudsen lead to the assumption 
that meat in "medicinal treatment of an animal with any drug, cannot 
result in becoming dangerous to health," and what holds good for the 
medicaments of powerful action as the result of experimental and obser- 
vational research applies also to other poisonous drugs. 

Whether the meat is of reduced or impaired value in case of an ani- 
mal slaughtered on account of having been poisoned, depends on the asso- 
ciated conditions or circumstances and the nutrition of the animal. We 
may. of course, preclude here that consumers will be prejudiced against 
meat of this class. The value of it is helozv par as soon as odorific poisons 
have given the meat an abnormal odor. (See boiling test, page 137.) 

Meat of poisoned animals is always to be considered unfit for human 
food whenever a nauseating or loathsome odor is present, when septic 
infections are present, or when marked changes in the meat (emaciation, 
serosity) occur associated with poisoning. 

[The judgment of this class of food animals in the United States is 
carried out on the same principles as those followed in Germany.] 



322 Chap. VII. Abnormal Conditions and Diseases, etc. 



B, Autointoxications 

Autointoxication designates the transition of toxic substances devel- 
oped in the intestines (enterogen), or in the tissue (histogen), into the 
fluids of the body. The transition of such poisons is cither caused by the 
presence of exciting- or toxic metabolic products, by a physiological 
increase in their production, or as a result of their incomplete destruction. 
In the same manner the blood may also receive toxic substances in dis- 
turbances or suspension of the functions of certain organs. 

1, Cholemia 

The presence of the constituents of bile in the blood is, strictly taken, 
only a symptomatic condition, a well-marked manifestation of which con- 
sists in a yellow coloration of the tissues, called jauntlice (icterus). The 
etiological classification of cholemic alTections in catarrhal, hepatoxemic, 
and hematogenic icterus, is also to be considered from the standpoint of 
meat inspection. 

Of the clinical s)-mptoms, the yellow coloration of the mucous mem- 
branes is of importance in meat inspection, and also the condition, 
whether a considerable general afifection is absent or present. In the 
latter case, severe organic changes are present, or an intoxication (lupi- 
nosis, phosphorous poisoning), or an infectious disease (sepsis, anthrax, 
swine plague, influenza), with its characteristic symptoms, is founil 
to be the original cause. On the latter depends also the anatomical 
lesions which are thus associated with yellow discoloration of the tissues. 
This is not only noticeable to a high degree on the serous memliranes, but 
also on all tissues and organs, and shows also occasionally distinct 
greenish-color tints. In animals with normal white fat tissue the slight- 
est degree of yellow coloration is also recognizable on the fat, but this 
must not be mistaken for the yellow coloration resulting from feeding, 
and the old age discoloration of the fat in cattle. 

The judging of icteric animals should be carried out only in daylight. 
It is also to be remembered that slight yellow colorations may almost 
entirely disappear in a certain time after death, as a result of the reductive 
action of the body cells ; therefore, slightly icteric carcasses are judged 
only after 24 hours. In severe forms of icterus with parenchymatous 
degeneration as a result of infections or intoxications, this is not neces- 
sary. In the latter case, the meat is spoiled in a high degree, and is unfit 
for human consumption. Otherwise, in cases which are pronounced 
icteric, the meat should be declared of inferior quality, while it may be 
passed if in 24 hours after slaughter the yellow coloration disappears, 
or if only a nominal discoloration remains. 



Autointoxications 323 

[In accordance with B. A. I. Order 150, Regulation 13, section 19, 
carcasses affected with icterus and showing the characteristic yellow or 
greenish-yellow discoloration after proper cooling should be condemned, 
while those which lose 'the discoloration after cooling may be passed for 
food.] 

2, Uremia 

For the nature of uremia, the same statement applies which was men- 
tioned above for cholemia. The occurrence of uremia in food animals is 
limited, with a few exceptions, to male imlividuals, in which the anatomical 
peculiarities of the urethra (S-shaped bending in ruminants and in hogs) 
favor this occurrence. The latter is principally the seat of obstructions 
with concrements, which as a result produce gangrene of the urethra or 
^ rupture of the bladder. The absorption of the constituents of urine 
effused into the periurethral connective tissue, or into the peritoneal cav- 
ity, results in a uremic poisoning of the blood. Very rarely uremia may 
also develop as a result of an insufficient excretion of the constituents of 
urine, as for instance, in double-sided pyelonephritis of cattle, or in the 
presence of double-sided cystic kidneys. 

Symptoms and Lesions. — The living animals show the known symp- 
toms of retentio urincje, which it is true, in indolent steers, is not very pro- 
nounced. After the resorption of urine, febrile symptoms, accelerated 
pulse, pronounced psychic depression, strong urinary odor of the expira- 
tions, uremic convulsions, and under certain conditions even subnormal 
temperatures arc manifested. On the slaughtered animal and in the 
immediate vicinit} of the carcass pronounced urinary odor may be noted, 
which, however, is absent in fresh cases. Corresponding with the cause 
there may be found an infiltration of urine in the scrotal region, rupture 
of the bladder with peritonitis, or severe kidney changes. The muscles 
have a distinct uriniferous odor, which gradually becomes less marked 
with the increased cooling of the carcass ; intermuscular hemorrhages 
may also be present. 

Therefore in the examination of a cooled carcass in which uremia is 
suspected, the nieat should be always subjected to a boiling test, during 
which the possible presence of a urinary odor again becomes recognizable. 

The judgment should be made only after the cooling of the meat, 
and the employment of the boiling test. If during the latter only a very 
slight uriniferous odor is perceptible which occurs in fresh cases exclu- 
sively, the meat may then be ])assed for human consumption, but should 
be declared of inferior quality. In advanced uremia the odor of the 
meat becomes so intensely uremic on account of its highly spoilerl condi- 
tion that it must be condemned as unfit for human food. 

[B. A. I. Order 150, Regulation 13, section 20, provides that car- 
casses which give off the odf)r of urine should be condemned.] 



324 Chap. VII. Abnormal Conditions and Diseases, etc. 



3, Hemoglobinemia of Horses 

The hemoglobinemia of horses, which is also designated as hemo- 
globinuria, azoturia, and lumbago, is usually a rheumatic affection. It 
probably results from an autointoxication of myogenic origin, in which 
the muscular coloring matter which is identical with hemoglobin is pres- 
ent, as well as other transformed products of the existing parenchymatous 
myositis, which penetrate into the blood and act destructively upon the 
erythrocytes. 

Of the clinical symptoms, there are especially conspicuous the well- 
known dark red to dirty brown and black coloration of the urine, and the 
paralysis-like weakness of the hind-quarters. Mucous membranes are 
highly congested and show a dirty discoloration; the temperature, on the 
other hand, is usually only very slightly elevated. In the slaughtered ani- 
mal the blood is of a varnish color and tar-like ; edematous swelling and 
pale coloring of the psoas and croup muscles, as well as of the quadriceps 
femoris, may be noted as a result of parenchymatous myositis. Second- 
ary lesions are: Swelling of the liver and spleen, infiltration of the red 
bone-marrow, parenchymatous nephritis, and hemorrhages in various 
organs. In cases of longer duration, septic lesions may be present as a 
result of decubitus gangrene. 

Jiidginent. — The meat of horses slaughtered in the early stages of 
this disease may be passed for food. Later, insufficient bleeding and 
muscular changes render the meat unfit for human consuniption on 
account of the highly spoiled condition. 

[Hemoglobinemia of horses is at the present time of no interest to 
meat inspection in the United States, inasmuch as horses are not included 
as food animals in this country.] 

According to Schlegel's investigation, another more rarely occurring infectious 
hemoglobinemia of horses has to be mentioned, which he designates as an infectious 
spinal meningitis, caused by the streptococcus melanogenes. The later stages of 
this infectious hemoglobinemia pass off under the semblance of septicemia. 



4, Parturient Paresis 

Parturient paresis (parturition fever, calf-fever, milk-fever) is 
observed principally in cows ; more rarely in goats and hogs. While this 
affection until recently was considered as an autointoxication in which 
the udder was supposed to be the place for the development of toxins 
(Sonnenberg), recent publications (Meier, Gebauer, and others), and 



Parturient Paresis, etc. 325 

especially the beneficial results following the air treatment of this disease, 
make it ajjparent that the aifcction is the result of a circulatory disturb- 
ance in the brain. It is ])ossible, however, that both causes must be given 
consideration. The disease appears, as a rule, in 12 to 48 hours after 
parturition ; it however has been observed before that time. 

The conspicuous symptoms in the living animal are characteristic 
manifestations of depression and ])aralysis. If these have advanced to a 
certain degree the animals will lie with their legs half way bent or 
stretched out, and their heads turned to the side, resting on the thorax. 
At the same time there are present somnolence, ptosis, absence of skin 
reflexes, paralysis of the muscles of the tongue and pharynx, and saliva- 
*tion. As a result of the paralysis of the muscles of the stomach, intes- 
tines and bladder, flatulency and retention of urine develop. The body 
temperature is unevenly distributed ; the internal temperature is slightly 
elevated only in the beginning of the disease; later it is normal or 
subnormal. 

On the slaughtered animal the finrlings are princi]jally negative. The 
uterus is usually strongly contracted and without abnormal contents ; the 
abdominal viscera are frequently highly injected, while insufficient bleed- 
ing will be noted in delayed slaughter. 

The recognition of this disease in the living animal is very easy. 
Nevertheless a careful examination is necessary in order to determine the 
possible presence of other puerperal affections (sepsis), special attention 
being paid to the absence of high fever and to whether there is tenesmus 
or indications that the animal was given cold water enemas. On the 
slaughtered animal the diagnosis has to be made by the exclusion of 
other diseases and by giving consideration to the history of the case. First 
of all, the attention should be directed to the absence of inflammatory 
changes in the uterus and the genital organs, as well as to the character- 
istic lesions of sepsis. 

Judgment. — The meat of animals which are slaughtered on account 
of parturient paresis is not injurious to human health. In early slaughter 
and in well-nourished animals there is sometimes no ground for con- 
demnation. Delayed slaughter renders the carcass inferior in quality on 
account of the greater blood content of the meat. The carcass will have 
to be condemned when complications with sepsis are present, or when 
marked substantial changes of the meat or otherwise severe internal 
affections are present. If an infusion of iodide of potassium or iodide of 
sodium were made into the udder, which may transmit a peculiar stale 
odor and taste to the meat (boiling test!), it should be always condemned 
on account of its repulsiveness. Owing to the repeated administration of 



326 Chap. VII. Abnormal Conditions and Diseases, etc. 

strong- smelling remedies (camphor, turpentine, ether, and others), their 
absorption by the meat should be thought of and the boiling test applied 
(see page 137). 

[In accordance with B. A. I. Order 150, Regulation 13, section 25, 
carcasses of animals showing symptoms of milk-fever at the time of 
slaughter should be condemned, which action is based not only on the 
changes of the meat relative to its consistence, color, etc., but also on the 
present view of the pathology of the disease, which suggests an auto- 
intoxication.] 



VIIL Post-mortem Changes of Meat 

The first changes of the animal tissues after death are of a physico- 
chemical nature, such as appearance of coagulation, changes of color, 
changes in reaction. The appearance of coagulation is most distinctly 
marked in the stiffening of fat in fat cells, and in the coagulation of myo- 
sin in striated muscles. The latter is probably brought on by acid forma- 
tion in the muscles, and rigor mortis is the result. The muscles thus 
obtain an acid reaction, a condition which is designated as a simple sour- 
ing of meat by W. Eber, who was the first to bring under a certain sys- 
tem the decomposition processes of meat. To this is added the sour fer- 
mentation which may occur in two forms : 

1. Fermentation Processes in Meat 

A. Simple sour fermentation begins with rigor mortis and produces 
the so-called "ripening" of the meat. The latter becomes more tender, 
appears more juicy and gradually loses the quality to take up a bright 
scarlet-red color on the cut surface. The cut surface then becomes light- 
brown to yellow. The odor of the ripening meat is sourish — aromatic. 
Later, traces of formation of hydrogen sulphide (haut gout) may 
develop (W. Eber, Glage) as a result of the sulphur compounds present 
in the meat. 

The nature of ripening of meat consists, according to recent investigations 
(Salkowski, Jacoby, M. Miiller, Vogel), in fermentation processes, which may be 
designated as an auto-digestion (Salkowski) ; or autolysis (Jacoby, M. Miiller), 
also as a physiological destruction of the meat (Glage). 

B. Stinking sotir fermentation occurs in meat which could not cool 
out. Thus it appears in game which is tightly packed together while 
still containing body heat, or in meat of slaughtered animals if it is piled 
up without being sufficiently chilled. The condition is designated in game 
as "overheated ;" in meat, as "suffocated." 

[This condition is termed "sour side" in the United States, and is 
produced by hanging the sides too close to each other in the cooler, thus 
preventing the proper circulation of cooled air between them ; and also 
by too sudden chilling of the carcass, whereby insufficient time is given 
for gradual disappearance of body heat.] 

In game the hair can be pulled out by the handful from the skin, the 
subcutis is. colored green, and the cut surfaces of the copper-red-colored 

327 



328 Chap. VIII. Post-mortem Changes of Meat 

muscles change in the same way ; gas cysts may appear. The last two 
changes are also observed in pieces of meat of food animals. The stink- 
ing" products contain large quantities of H2S. The determination of fer- 
mentation processes is not difficult by these described changes. The 
presence of an acid reaction is necessary, and the absence of ammonia 
(see Demonstration of Putrefaction). 

Jiidgiiiciit. — While meat in a state of simple sour fermentation is 
suitable for human consumption, as a matter of fact it is designated in 
that condition as "table ripe;'" on the other hand, meat showing the slight- 
est trace of stinking sour fermentation should be consiilered highly 
spoiled, and be condemned, as injurious to health. 

[The above judgment applies also to meat inspection in the United 
States (see B. A. I. Order 150, Regulation u), section i)]. 

2, Putrefaction of Meat 

Putrefaction of meat is a parasitic decomposition, which by adequate 
treatment, curing or preserving, may be checked. On the other hand, it 
is above all superinduced by heat and moisture. The last two factors 
facilitate the growth of putrefactive microorganisms. 

Xatiirc and Dcz'clop)iiciit. — Obligatory anaerobic bacteria come into considera- 
tion as agents of putrefaction, especially tbe bacillus putrificus (Bienstock). bacillus 
edeniatis maligni (page 292), bacillus gangren?e emphysematosse (page- 31.2), for 
wbose existence and development satisfactory conditions are produced on the sur- 
face of the meat through abstraction of oxygen by the aerobic bacteria. Of the 
aerobic bacteria in putrefactive meat, there may be found staphylococci, bacterium 
coli, species of proteus (Fig. 142 and 143), and bacteria, which greatly resemble 
the bacillus enteritidis Gartner. The bacillus paraputrificus Bienstock, retards 
putrefaction. 

The action of putrefactive micro-organisms consists in the decomposition of 
albuminous bodies and gelatinous substances, which are broken up under the for- 
mation of gases of a disagreeable odor. The freer the supply of oxj'gen to the 
putrefactive meat, the quicker and more completely decomposition progresses 
(rotting"). With an insufficient supply of air, a stinking putrefication develops. As 
end products of putrefactive decomposition there develops, according to Gotschlich : 

1. Gases CCO2, CH4, H2, N2, NH3, H2S) ; 

2. Fatty acids (formic, acetic, butyric, valerianic, palmitic acid) ; 

3. Oxy — and more basic acids (lactic — succinic — oxalic acid) ; 

4. Various other substances (amines, amides, amido-acids, leucin, tyrosin, aro- 
matic acids, indol, scatol, peptone, ptomaines, toxins). 

Toxins appear to assume the properties of strong poisons only in the presence 
of a free supply of air (Nielson). 

Lcsio)is. — Putrefaction as a rule begins on the surface of meat and 
penetrates the deep parts, following the course of the connective tissue. 
The muscle fibers proper resist putrefaction for some time. Meat of ani- 



Putrefaction of Meat 329 

mals which had febrile afifection, or that of insufficiently blecl animals, 
putrefies quicker than fiesh of healthy animals. 

Stinking, putrefactive, malodorous substances do not necessarily 
appear, as was mentioned above, in all putrefactions ; besides they vary 
considerably in accordance with the kind of meat. In putrid meat-sausages 
and salted meat stinking odors are sometimes entirely absent. Some of 
the putrefactive odors appear more pronounced in treating meat with 
acids or alkalies ; some again are not influenced by such treatment. 
Marked changes of color (turning gray, yellow, green) are not always 
characteristic. Changes in the consistence appear noticeable only in 
advanced stages of putrefaction, 






"-6 



rand then the meat appears slop- 

* 11 1- •, «• (^"'y^ 

py, smeary, porous. Alkahnity r^/>-r'/<^'^ 

alone is no criterion of putrefac- ,, '^^.-^-■ya ^' /v ~7>'/ 

tion, but it may be found always (^ // o ^'^' ^^ji '^^l^ ' 



to be present in the same. Pu- v\ ^' '^ 'A:^^r ^i -^ ,r. 



trefactive toxins are very resist- '^{^^'^'•^^'•u ?A^':^^^"^n/Bk^ 
ant against the customary meth- 
ods of preparing meats, and can- 
not be even completely destroyed 



V 




"Or 






Fig. 142 Fig. 143 

Fig. 142. Proteus vulgaris. From a pure culture, x 730 diameters. After 
Weichselbaum. 

Fig. 143. Colony of the proteus vulgaris with swarming processes. Gelatine 
plate. X 70 diameters. After Weichselbaum. 

by ordinary boiling; they lose their poi.sonous effects after heating for 
i^ hours at 100° C, according to Scholl. 

For proof of putrefaction, the changes of meat in relation to color, 
consistence, odor, taste, resistance, should be taken into consideration, but 
they may appear greatly varied, and their detection must depend to a 
large extent on subjective perception by the inspector. Besides, the bac- 
terioscopic and bacteriological examination shows very large numbers of 
anaerobic and aerobic bacteria. The muscle fibers under the microscope 
appear cloudy and infested with bacteria ; triple phosphate crystals may be 
present. 



330 



Chap. VIII. Post-mortem Changes of Meat 




According to Marxer, meat should be considered as putrefactive if 
one gram contains over a million of organisms of any kind, or proteus 
bacteria in large numbers. W. Eber recommends proving the presence 
of free ammonia, which develops in meat in all putrefaction ; and his 
putrefactive test (see below) is based upon this fact.- In opposition to 
this, however, Glage claims that it cannot by itself be decisive for the 
demonstration of putrefaction, as the presence of ammonia is not an 
exclusively specific sign of putrefaction, and its development does not 
occur sufficiently early with the formation of toxins in the meat. Glage 
demands a bacteriological examination of meat which 
is in the act of decomposition by making smear- 
preparations, cultures, and animal experiments. How- 
ever, this requirement which may be justified from a 
scientific standpoint, could be carried out in practice 
only with the greatest difficulty. In large pieces of 
meat, examination should extend particularly to the 
deeper layers of muscles, as putrefactions of the sur- 
face may be present without involving deeper parts. 

Eber's test for putrefaction is based on the fact that when 
ammonia and hydrochloric acid vapors combine, gray to 
white sal ammoniac clouds form. For this test the foltowing 
reagents are used : Acid hydrochloric, pur. i-.o, alcohol, 3.0, 
ether i.o. Of this mixture, enough i« poured into a 2 cm. 
wide reagent glass (Fig. 144) to cover its bottom to the depth 
of I cm. The glass can be closed by a rubber stopper, 
through which a glass rod is inserted, which almost reaches 
to the surface of the fluid. On the rod is placed a small sam- 
ple of the material to be examined, or from the latter some 
of the juice is taken up by the glass rod. After the reagent 
has been shaken in the test tube, in order to fill the tube with 
the vapors of the hydrochloric acid the glass rod is set into 
the tube. The reaction varies in accordance with the quantity 
of ammonia, which is set free from the sample. There is a 
formation of gray, smoke-gray, or white clouds, which, start- 
ing at the sample, sink down to the surface of the fluid. 
Naturally no free ammonia should be present in the room 
where the examination is made ; the sample to be examined 
should not be colder than the reagent glass. 
This test is not applicable on pickled meats on account of the presence of 

trimethylamin. 

Proof of the presence of hydrogen sulphate, which can be easily tested with a 

paper moistened in a 10 per cent, solution of nitrate of lead, cannot essentially 

support the diagnosis of putrefaction, as H2S forms soon, even in fresh meat 

(Rubner, Glage). 

The judgment of putrefactive meat which shows considerable per- 
ceptible changes is not difficult, as such would at once be considered highly 







Fig. 144. Reagent 
glass for Eber's 
test for putrefac- 
tion. 



Mixed Processes in the Decomposition of Meat, etc. 331 

spoiled and unfit for human food. In general, it may be considered injuri- 
ous to health, but this is not in direct relation to the intensity of the putre- 
faction. The nature qf the causative agents of putrefaction enters into 
this question; also numerous unknown additional circumstances, and 
besides symbyotic processes of the concerned bacteria. Therefore, Eber's 
test alone cannot be sufficient for establishing the injurious properties of 
meat, but in general, it is only useful as a supporting diagnostic method 
for determining bacterial decomposition. 

Judgment. — With reference to this condition, and in consideration of 
the significant poisonous properties of putrefactive toxins under various 
conditions (see Chap. X), precaution should be taken to withhold even 
slightly putrid meat from the market; however, from the standpoint of 
law its injuriousness to health cannot be positively asserted, which has 
also been considered as doubtful by van Ermengem. Therefore, in making 
decision it should be always with consideration of the forensic results. It 
is always advisable to declare meat with superficial decomposition of infe- 
rior quality, and at the same time the changed layers of the meat should 
be removed. 

[In accordance with the regulations governing the meat inspection of 
the United States, meats which on reinspection show evidence of putre- 
faction should be considered unhealthful and therefore unfit for human 
food. (See B. A. I. Order 150, Regulation 19, section i.)] 

3, Mixed Processes in the Decomposition of Meat 

Various kinds of fermentative and putrefactive processes may natu- 
rally develop simultaneously in the meat, and it is not always possible to 
characterize exactly their nature. Especially difficult is the demonstration 
of the presence of the exceptionally dangerous bacillus botulinus 
(page 364) in the meat either microscopically or bacteriologically. The 
judging in such cases has to depend principally upon the objective char- 
acteristics of the meat, and the unfavorable conditions should be always 
considered as decisive. 

4. Other Microphytic Changes of Meat 

A. Mould formation on meat is mostly the result of keeping it in 
damp, poorly ventilated rooms. Of the known mould fungi, the peni- 
cillium, aspergillus, and mucor species are especially apt to establish them- 
selves on meat, the surface of which they cover with their white, gray, 
or grayish-green tufts, which may also proliferate into the slits, gaps, ves- 
sels and cuts of the meat (Figs. 145, 146, and 147). 



33' 



Chap. \lll. Post-niorteni Cliang-os of ]\[cat 



Regarding the clieniical changes of nionldy meat, the results of Butjagiu'b 
investigations eontain the desired information. 

B. The phosphorescence of meat in the 
dark is the result of an infeetion of its surface 
with phosphorescent bacteria. The organism 
which comes principall}- into consideration in 
this connection is bacillus (photobacterium) 
phosphorescens. which, according" to Molisch, 
is the most widely distributed phosphorescent 
bacteritnn. 



Mauuseliita chissilies the pliosphoreseent haetena 
into two groups, one of which lit|uities gelatine, while 
die other leaxes it unliquilied. Vo the lirst helong 
4 species of the bac. phosphorescens: the bac. lumi- 
nosus and the bac. cyaneo-phosphorescens : to the 
second, additional species of the bac. phospiior- 
escens. 

.\ccording to Sackshuul the phosphorescence bac- 
teria are Ncry resistant to high degrees of cold. 




iMg. 145. .Aspergillus glau- 
cus. C. conidia chains ; /•', 
V o u n g eurotium-perithe- 
cium ; M. mycelium, x 300 
diameters. 



C. Red and Hliie Colorations of Meal. — .\ spotted reddening of the 
surface of meat ma^■ be proilucetl by an infection with various s]iecies of 
the bacillus prodig'iosus. 

Iliis condition should not 
be confused with the dif- 
fused reddening of boiled 
meat which has already been 
mentioned on page 76, and 
which is produced by the 
action of nitrites and sul- 
phites. 

Stiperficial blue color- 
ation of meat is pro- 
duced by the Bacillus 
cyanogenus. 

D. Diverse Cl!ani:;es 
of Meat. — Besides the 
above-mentioned micro- 
org-anisms, the most 
varied microbes thrive 

on meat, the development of which is greatlv fax'ored b_\- the suitable nutri 
ti\-e substance and b}- inatle([tiate storing of the meat. 





big 140 



big. 140. Penicilliuni glancum. 
mycelium, x 300 diameters. 

Fig. 147. IMucor mucedo. C, bursted sporangium 
with conidia? ; G. closed sporangium ; Z, germinating 
zygospore; /■>', carrier of conidia^ with sporangium in 
a schematic longitudinal section, x 300 diameters. 



Insect I .;ii-v;r on Meal, 333 

Al this point tlic-rc i-oiiic into cDnsidcralioii llic .ifoiu.-i h.-icUTi'ii (CIa^v), wliic.li 
belong to the ice bacteri.'i, and wliicli dcvcloi) only on inc;il kcpl in cool |)lacc,s. 
They produce, besides ammonia, a fruil-like odor. 

As the causes of sonic of (lie infcclions diseases of man (lyplioid, chok'i\'i, 
scarlet fever and o(bers) lin-ive on meal, il sbonid not be kejil anywiiere near a 
place wliei't: any such con(a)^ion exists. 

Ill ///'/a''".s the cliaiii;c's of meal dcscrilicd in tins sccMioii it slioiild he 
romcnihcred that tliey arc ])rinci])ally of a superficial nature, and that lliey 
do not otherwise affect the meal lo a disadvanlaj^e. If, therefore, no 
decoiii|)(»sil ion ( put refaction, slinkin.L;' feiiiK'nlation ) accompany these 
coiuliticjiis, mouldy or j)hos])horcsccnt meat or meat showing colored 
spots is, as a rule, neither injnrioiis to health nor spoiled; and after 
.removal of (he fmi|L;()id ve.u'etalion or washing;' with vinegar, il should he 
passed for food. 

A declaration of inferioi- (|iialily should he made only if (he descrihecj 
chan}.;es are well marke<l. In the presence ol iiioiilds il should he ri'iiiein- 
hered that meat mif^iit take tip a mouldy lasle and odor, which should he 
determined hy the hoilinj^ (est. 

A liij:^hly spoiled condition, and with it an nnhtness for food, occurs 
in the presence of marked mouldy taste and odor. 

The red coloration of sardines is sii|)])osed lo he injiirioiis to health. 

[Meats showing- chanpi'es descrilx'd alxive are jiido-ed in the United 
States on the same lines as in (icrmany ; however, a declaration of inferior 
quality does not enter into consideration, and in such cases tlie extent of 
the chan^'es decides wlu'ther (he meat should he passed for food or he 
condemned. | 

5, Insect Larvae on Meat 

Dnrino- summer this condition may easily occur. The Hies deposit 
their v^^^s or livinj^' larv;e on the meat, from which the ily larvae (maj;- 
gots) develop rai)idly, sometimes within 24 hours. The following species 
especially come into consideration : 

A. IViusca vomitoria (hlow-lly, muck-lly, l)lue-bottle fly). Stubby, 
cheeks black, red hairs, four l)lack back shield stripes; rear of body steel- 
blue (Im^-. 148). 

1). Saro])haga carnocia (meat-fly). Slender; gray; rear of body 
checkered; three black back stripes; eyes red. Prefer putrid meat, and 
deposit living larv;e (big. I4<j)- 

The lenj?lii of the latter on tlie lirst day is r mm,, and every day it increases 
about I mm. 

C. Musca domestica (house-lly), and 

I). Stoinoxys calcitrans (stiiiging-lly ). (iray, resembling the house- 
fly, with horizontal stinging ])roboscis on the head. I'ack shield with 



334 



Chap. YITT. rost-morteni Changes of Meat 



three whitish stripes. Lays eggs only excej^tionally on cleeoinposed meat : 
otherwise prefers horse niannre (Fig-. 150). 

Besides these flics there is the aglossa pinguinalis (fat cockroach), which lays 
its eggs on bacon, and later these eggs develop into the i6-footed glittering brown 
caterpillar. This cockroach is reddish brown, has glittering wings, the front ones 
of which are covered with spots resembling cross-bands, v/hilc the hind wings have 
long fringes. 

By keeping ham in bran or flour, it may become infested with the tyroglyphiis 
farinte (flour mite). 

J i(di:;iiiciit. — As the larvcu of Hies 
may occur on the surface of per- 
fectly fresh meat, their presence is 
not sufficient to claim that it is 
spoiled or of inferior quality. This, 
however, could be asserted and 
even total condemnation made if 
the mag'g-ots enter the meat. Be- 





Fig. 149 



Fig. 150 



Fig. 148. Musca vomitoria. x 2 diameters. 
Fig. 149. Sarcophaga carnaria. x 2 diameters. 
Fig. 150. Stomoxys calcitrans. x 3 diameters. 

sides, the consistency of the meat has also to be taken into consideration in 
this decision. 

[Judgment in the United States is the same as in Germany.] 

6, Other Changes 



A. In the soiling of meat during slaughter with urine, bile, intesti- 
nal contents, pus or ichor, it frequently happens that simple washing of 
the meat is not sufficient for their removal, and in such cases, especially 
in soiling with pus and ichor, the superficial layers of the meat should be 
removed. 



Souring and Rancidity of Fats 335 

Regarding contamination of nu:al willi antiirax bacilli, sec page 280, with pus- 
producing organisms, page 299. That luhcrclc liacilli may he transmitted to the 
meat by contaminated tools of hulchcrs is j)ossible, according to the investigations 
of Decker. 

]1. Absorption of odors may occur through unsuitable storing of 
meat. Ks])ccially are the odors from the following substances readily 
absorlx'd and retained : Carbolic acid, chlorine, turpentine, tar vapors, 
tobacco, and carrion. The corresponding odor and taste appear, as a rule, 
only after the meat is prepared ; therefore a Ixjiling test should be made 
in all sus])ected cases. 

Sulphurous acid, according to Kickton, may occur in meat if it he kept in sul- 
phurated rooms. 

Carbolic acid can he dL-nionstr.atcd in nuat by broniide water, which forms 
with a watery carbolic sohilion a yellowish-white precipitation of tribromide of 
phenol (Glage). 

C. Metallic poisons may be transmitted to meat through unsuitably 
prepared storage containers (tin boxes, lead solder), or by machines for 
working up meat. 

Jnd'^iiii!^ of the ab'we-mentioned cases follows in accordance with 
the cause itself. 

D. Peculiar changes in color, the nature of which is yet to be determined, 
are shown occasionally in boiling apparently normal udders of cows. The entire 
substance of the udder, after boiling is completed, ap])ears of a bluish, dark blackish- 
bliic, or an ink-like color. 

These changes are observed only after a certain time following slaughter, in 
the working up or during the culinary preparation of the tissue, and they are 
supposed to occur only in udders of older animals during lactation. Such changes 
cannot be determined, even after thorough examination of the organ in an unpre- 
pared condition. 

While no injurious residts to health, so far as known, have been observed from 
their ingestion, yet such changed udders shoidd be condc'uined. 

7, Souring and Rancidity of Fats 

Fatty acids in large quantities develo|) in fats and in meals rich in 
fat when unsuitably stored, and produce a souring of the product. The 
causes for this lie principally in the influence of light and oxygen, which 
s])]it the fatty acids and oxy-fatty acids from the fats, and ])Ossil)ly also 
from the action of fat-splitting luicro-organisms. 

Souring is usually accompanied by the development of rancidity, but 
the degree of souring is not in pro])(;rli(in to the acidity of the fat. The 
rancid odor and taste of fats are in connection with the formation of 
aldehydes and ketones, which originate from the glycerin. The forma 
tion of alcohol from lactose probably plays a part in this also. 



336 Chap. VIII. Post-mortem Changes of Meat 

Rancid odor may also be pi'oduced without any marked changes in the meat 
through infection with the Bacillus botuliiius. However, in those cases souring of 
meat is absent, as the B. botulinus grows only on alkaline soil. 

Souring and rancidity in meat containing fat is recognized by the 
characteristic changes in odor and taste, both of which may be desig- 
nated as stinking and repulsive. The degree of acidity, that is the quan- 
tity of acid in fat, and its rancidity sliould be estabHshed by the chemist. 

Judgment. — Rancid meat products should be declared of inferior 
equality, inasmuch as rancidity does not demand the total condemnation of 
the meat. No injurious effect to health from the ingestion of rancid 
meat has as yet been proven, and the same applies to free fatty acids. 

If Bacillus botulinus is the cause of the rancid changes, then the meat 
is always injurious to health (page 365). 

[There is no standard adopted in the United States by which the 
rancidity of meat and fat is judged. The condition, taste, and odor are 
the guides by which the dispositions are made. 

Fats are looked upon with suspicion if they contain over 1^ per 
cent, of acidity, and when in such cases there is also a marked rancid taste 
and odor they are considered as unfit for food.] 



IX. Examination and Judgment of Prepared 

and Preserved Meats, as Well as Chickens, 

Game, Fish, Amphibia, and Crustaceans 

1, Preserved and Prepared Meat 

The properties of the meat to be (Hscussed in this section, as well as 
the manner of obtainin,2^ it, has been amply discussed in Chapters I and 
III. For examination and judgment of such meat in general, all the prin- 
ciples apply which have already been described in the previous chapters. 
Therefore, only those essential characteristics will be mentioned in the 
following discussion, which deserve special significance for the kind of 
meat belonging here. 

A, Ground Meat, Sausages, and Meats Prepared by Culinary Methods 

The composition and ingredients of ground meat and sausage, also 
of culinary prejjared meat preparations when they consist of small pieces, 
are difficult to determine. 

The addition of starch Hour may be quite easily established by treat- 
ment with tincture of icxline or Lugol's solution. It is best to boil a small 
piece of the sausage, etc., in water, and then to the cooled dcccjction add 
Lugol's solution. While smearing the cut surface of sausage with iodine 
solution also discloses the blue coloration developing from the presence 
of starch flour, yet in these cases the occurrence of single blue dots 
(starch from spices) should not be considered as intentional addition of 
starch. As is well known, the starch granules can also be easily recog- 
nized microscopically. The quantitative determination of the addition of 
starch should be trusted to professional chemists. 

Testing for mixtures of e^^ albumen and gum tragacanth ("albu- 
mina") (page 72) should also be left for the chemist. 

Regarding the tests for horse meat, see pages 66 and 69. 

Trichina and measles are the principal parasites which should be 
given consideration. While microscopic examination of presumably pieces 
of pork might disclose the ])resence of trichina, such an examination will 
always remain incomplete for easily understood reasons, taking into con- 

23 337 



338 Chap. IX. Examination and Judgment, etc. 

sideration the comminuted masses of meat. This should be also con- 
sidered in delivering an opinion. The examination for measles is very 
circumstantial and uncertain. 

Regarding the occurrence of coloring materials, a striking red color 
of the ground (chopped) meat indicates mixing with sulphurous acid 
salts. In the presence of a superficial red coloration of boiled or roasted 
meat, the nitrate action on the muscle-coloring matter mentioned on page 
y6, should be remembered. 

Coloring of sausages with artificial materials (page 73) is sus- 
pected when the fat pieces present show a red coloration on their periph- 
eries. For the demonstration of artificial coloring matter, the following 
method will be found satisfactory : 

Two lots of ground meat each containing 20 g. are heated for Yz hour 
in a water bath with occasional shaking: the first 

(a) With 40 c. c. of a slightly acidified mixture of equal parts of 
glycerin and water : the second 

(b) With 40 c. c. of a 4 per cent, aqueous solution of sodium salic- 
3date ; then it is pressed and filtered. If one or both filtrates show a red 
color it is evident that artificial colorings are present. In the presence 
of carmine in the filtrate a, following an over-saturation with an ammoniac 
solution and addition of alum solution after a few hours standing in a 
glass cylinder, a red stained deposit on the bottom of the container can 
be seen. For the demonstration of coal-tar colorings a thread of raw 
cotton is boiled with a part of the stained extract and with 10 c. c. of a 
10 per cent, potassium sulphate solution for a considerable time. In the 
presence of coal-tar coloring the thread turns red and retains that color, 
even after washing in water. 

Examinations for spoiled conditions anl decompositions should be 
made according to the instruction given on page 330. Spoiled sausages 
have mostly a smeary appearance, and show a cyst formation under the 
covering, which is brittle and separates readily from the sausage filling. 
Blood sausage, after it is spoiled, shows on its cut surface a pale red 
color ; the odor is sour, and the fat areas appear yellowish-green. The 
cut surface of liver sausage reddens after being spoiled, and very soon 
emits a sour odor. Jelly sausages turn soft, friable, smeary, sour, and 
stinking. Meat sausages appear, according to their water contents, of a 
uniform gray, grayish-green, or reddish-yellow color, with a discolora- 
tion of the fat. 

All sausages which are rich in carbohydrates putrify under certain 
conditions very rapidly and strongly. Furthermore, all other manifesta- 
tions of putrefaction, taste, mold formation, etc., should be considered. 



Ground Meat, Sausage, and Meats 339 

Shilling undertook investigations in regard to the contents of dirt in sausage 
coverings, by examining fresh intestines which had been cleaned in the usual way. 
He found that each meter of 

Hogs' small intestines weighing 2.16 g. contained 0.330 g. dry substance. 

Hogs' large intestines 'weighing 4.98 g. contained 0.530 g. dry substance. 

Cattle small intestines weighing 2.47 g. contained 0.275 g. dry substance. 

Cattle large intestines weighing 5.00 g. contained 0.666 g, dry substance. 

The considerable amount of dirt in the large intestines is caused by the number 
of deep folds. 

A-Ieat sausages, the filling in which has a gray border, or which has 
entirely turned gray (page y^)), should not be considered as spoiled 
without further thought, but they should be examined for characteristic 
signs of fermentation and putrefaction. 

• Rancidity (page 335) should be determined by taste, which is sharp, 
harsh, and consequently disagreeable. The exact test for rancidity should 
be made by a chemist, who should also establish the degree of acidity. 

The judging of deviations mentioned here is made according to pre- 
viously developed principles with regard to the spoiled condition and the 
presence of parasites. 

Regarding the admissibility of starch flour in making sausages, and 
the addition of so-called albumina, see page 72. 

Von Raumer demands punishment for adulteration when binding substances are 
used. Sausage prepared with i per cent, of binding substance contained 53.075 per 
cent, water; with 4 per cent, of such substance, it contained 58.08 per cent, of water, 
compared with 43.33 per cent, of water in sausage without binding substances. 

The coloring of sausage filling, but not of casings, is prohibited 
throughout the German Empire. The same applies to the use of sul- 
phurous salts and borates. If colored meat products, etc., containing the 
above-mentioned substances are offered for sale they should be 
confiscated. 

[In accordance with the regulations governing meat inspection in the 
United States only such coloring matters as may be designated by the 
Secretary of Agriculture as being harmless may be used, and these only 
in such a manner as the Secretary of Agriculture may designate. 

The use of chemical preservatives with the exception of salt and salt- 
peter, as well as the addition of potato flour in sausage filling, is prohib- 
ited, while cereals and water may be only used in moderate quantities. 
(See B. A. I. Order 150, Regulation 22, sections i and 2, and Regulation 
23, section 3.)] 

Regarding the consistence of sausage filling, the methods character- 
istic to the various localities and described on pages 71-75, are decisive. 
The working up into sausages of testicles, uteri, fetuses, and cattle skins, 
is to be judged as an adulteration. 



340 Chap. IX, Examination and Judgment of Prepared Products 



B, Meat Preserved by Physical Methods 

In canned preserves (page 79) examination should at first deter- 
mine whether they are spoiled, which can be accepted when the contents 
of the container can be shaken. Bulging of the otherwise concave bot- 
toms of the cans also indicates accumulation of gases within the can, as a 
result of putrefaction. If the gases were present, but had been removed, 
then on the bottom of the can double soldering places will be found, 
together with a movableness of the canned contents. 

If a can with shakeable contents had been exposed to heat, it should be allowed 
to cool, as the jelly in the cans liquifies at 26° C. 

According to Pfuhl and Wintzen, the cause of bulging in canned preserves maj' 
be also due to an insufficient soldering of the containers. The fonnation of 
hydrogen and the separation of ferrous phosphate stand in direct relation to 
each other, and are traceable to the action of the organic acid contained in the 
bouillon on the iron of the walls of the container, and to the following secondary 
processes : 

As soon as decomposition sets in it is found on opening the can that the 
jelly is licjuified, of a disagreeable odor, and that corresponding changes 
have occurred in the pieces of meat. But even without decomposition, the 
liquifying of canned jelly is a suspicious sign and makes a more careful 
examination necessary (bacteriologic, boiling test, etc.). It should also 
be examined for adulterations, prohibited additions of chemicals and a 
content of inferior quality in the cans (gelatinous admixtures). 

Suspicion of lead salts in canned material as a result of a considerable content 
of lead in the pewter used for soldering requires chemical examination. 

The examination of frozen meat, to be done accurately, should be 
undertaken only after thawing it out in the usual way (page 147). Such 
meat appears softer and more moist ; also the red blood corpuscles on 
microscopic examination can be distinguished from those of meat not 
frozen, inasmuch as they are discolored, deformed and swim in a green- 
ish serum. 

The latter contains the hemoglobin in the form of irregular yellowish- 
brown crystals. 

The judging of frozen meat, and also of canned meat, is carried out 
in accordance with the general principles. In spoiled canned meats there 
is always a suspicion of harmfulness to health ; wherefore they should be 
declared as unfit for consumption (see Meat Poisonings, Chap. X). Adul- 
terations, to which should also be added the gelatin containing admix- 
tures, render the canned products of inferior quality. 

[In accordance with B. A. I. Order 150, Regulation 23, section 2, the 
contents of defective or leaking cans should be condemned unless the 



Meat Preserved with Chemical Substances 341 

repairing" or repacking is done within 6 hours of the time of original ster- 
ilization. If the contents show a spoiled condition they should always 
be condemned.] 

C, Meat Preserved with Chemical Substances 
1, Pickled Meat 

Regarding the occurrence of decomposition in pickled meat, the con- 
sistence, surface, and condition of brine, and of the meat near the bones, 
and the larger tracts of connective tissue should be especially considered. 
Regarding the examination for measles, trichina, and other diseased 
^hanges, nothing further need be said here. 

The iridescence of cooked, pickled, or smoked meat on the cut sur- 
faces is the result of deficiency in muscular coloring matter (I.egge), and 
is otherwise unimportant. 

For testing of common salt in the deeper portions of the meat, dot- 
ting the cut surface with 10 per cent, solution of nitrate of silver serves 
satisfactorily and causes a thick white precipitation to form. A better 
test for determination of thorough pickling is Glage's method, which is 
described in the following : 

(a) Preparing the reagent; 100 c. c. of a 2 per cent, nitrate of 
silver solution is shaken with 23 c. c. of normal ammonium hydrate. Then 
more of the later reagent is added drop by drop until the precipitate which 
develops has disappeared and the .solution is as clear as water. An excess 
of 40 c. c. of normal ammonium hydrate is then added and the .solution is 
diluted to 200 c. c. by the addition of di.stilled water. This solution should 
be kept in yellow bottles, each containing 20 c. c. 

(b) Method of performing the test: From the center of the meat 
a piece the size of a hazelnut is taken and placed in a test tube with 20 
c. c. of the solution and thoroughly shaken several times. If a white pre- 
cipitate develops, which in daylight rapidly turns black, it is an indica- 
tion that the meat is salted through; otherwise it is fresh. 

For determining the presence of saltpeter in pickled meat the brucin 
reaction is the best, by which the presence of saltpeter can be determined 
in a dilution of i : 100,000, according to Simon. 

Several small cut pieces of meat are soaked out in the reagent-glass, with a few- 
cubic centimeters of water. One or two drops of this solution are placed, by means 
of a glass rod, into a white porcelain dish, to which 2 drops of a brucin solution 
is added (brucin is shaken with aqua distillata, so that only a small quantity of 
brucin remains undissolved). To this are added 5 to 10 drops of concentrated sul- 
phuric acid, which must be free from nitric acid. The solutions are then allowed 
to flow together. A pink coloration will develop in the test solution, the intensity 
of which depends on the quantity of saltpeter present. 



342 Chap. IX. Examination and Judgment of Prepared Products 

If there is a suspicion of the presence of boracic acid, the following 
test will prove satisfactory for the demonstration of boracic acid and its 
salts : 

Thirty grams of ground meat is well mixed with 5 c. c. of a saturated 
sodium carbonate solution, dried and ashed in a platinum dish. The ash 
thus obtained is dissolved in a small quantity of sulphuric acid, and with 
the latter a strip of carcuma paper is moistened, which is then dried on 
a watch glass at 100° C. If in this process the carcuma paper shows a 
red coloration on the moistened part, which changes into a blue by an 
addition of a drop of a sodium carbonate solution, the presence of boracic 
acid is proven.^ The remaining portion of the ash solution is made alka- 
line and evaporated. The residue is then slightly acidified with hydro- 
chloric acid, the solution is placed in a Woulff's flask, mixed with methyl 
alcohol, and hydrogen passed through the solution. The hydrogen, when 
ignited, in the presence of boracic acid, burns with a green-bordered 
flame. 

If the meat is treated with the salts of sulphuric acid, sulphurous 
acid, or their salts, their presence may be best determined by Kaemerer's 
method, which is best adapted according to Edelmann, Meyer, and Strauss 
for a quick qualitative test of sulphurous acid and hyposulphites in meat. 
It is as follows : 

The sample to be examined (fine-cut meat) is placed on iodide of potassium 
starch paper, which is prepared with iodide of potassium. The meat is moistened 
with dilute sulphuric acid (1:8), whereupon the presence of dinatrium sulphite or 
sulphurous acid, a deep brown ring develops around the meat sample, as a result 
of the formation of iodide of starch. 

While salicylic acid is not employed in the preservation of canned 
meat, it is used occasionally, however, for the preservation of fresh meat. 
The test is made as follows : 

Fifty grams of ground meat is macerated in 200 c. c. of a i per cent, 
sodium carbonate solution ; then it is heated to a boiling point, acidified 
with hydrochloric acid, and after adding 5 g. of sodium chloride it is 
squeezed and filtered. The filtrate is then mixed with a sodium carbon- 
ate solution until a slight alkaline reaction is obtained. It is then evapo- 
rated to 30 c. c, and if necessary it is again filtered. The liquid is acidi- 
fied with sulphuric acid and mixed with an iron chloride solution. A 
violet coloration indicates the presence of salicylic acid. 

Although formaldehyde is not adapted for the preservation of meat 
on account of its disagreeable odor and taste, the method for its determi- 
nation should be indicated: 



^If this test is carefully executed with reliable carcuma paper it is decisive, and 
the test by other methods may be omitted. 



Meat Preserved with Chemical Substances 343 

Thirty grams of ground meat is placed in a flask with a capacity of 
about 500 c. c. to which is added a mixture of 200 c. c. of water and 
10 c. c. of an aqueous 25 per cent, solution of phosphoric acid. After a 
^ hour's standing 40 c. c. of this quantity is distilled, 10 c. c. of the dis- 
tillate is mixed with I c. c. of a fuchsin solution, which has been discol- 
orized by sulphuric acid. The presence of formaldehyde causes a red 
coloration. If the latter does not appear it does not necessitate a fur- 
ther examination. In case of a positive reaction of the test described 
above, the remaining portion of the distillate is mixed with an excessive 
quantity of ammonium hydrate solution and is then evaporated. In the 
presence of formaldehyde characteristic crystals of hexamethyltetramin 
will remain. These are dissolved in a few drops of water. One drop of 
the solution is placed on each of 2 object glasses and tested with both of 
the following reagents : 

1. With mercuric chloride in excess immediately a crystalline pre- 
cipitate develops ; soon stars may be observed of 3 or more rays and later 
octohedra. The latter develop in large quantities in a concentration of 
1 : 10,000, but also very distinctly in i : 100,000. 

2. With mercuric potassium iodide and a small quantity of diluted 
hydrochloric acid hexagonal, pale yellow stars develop ; they appear very 
distinct even in a concentration of i : 10,000. 

The presence of formaldehyde can only be established as proven 
when the obtained crystalline residue shows the two reactions described 
above. 

Tyrosin deposits may form on barreled livers, which are preserved in brine 
(Groning). The surface of such livers, and the intima of the vessels of the liver, 
is covered with small roundish, millet-sized granules, which show a yellowish center, 
surrounded by a narrow, whitish-gray zone. On section, such a liver appears mot- 
tled and sprinkled with white dots. Microscopically under large magnification and 
after clearing with glycerin, fine, light needles lying closely together in bundles 
may be seen radiating from the opaque, yellowish granules toward the periphery. 
A yellowish-green solution of the granules in nitric acid turns red on heating. 

2, Smoked Products 

In examination of sinoked products for spoiled conditions the parts 
lying around the bones should be especially observed, as well as the larger 
connective tissue tracts and the consistency of the skin, if such is present. 
On account of the meat being more apt to decompose along the bones, it 
is a custom to introduce thin wooden sticks into hams in order to be con- 
vinced by the odor test of the good or spoiled condition of the respective 
meat layers. 

[In the United States, the so-called "tester" — a sharp-pointed steel 
rod with a handle, is introduced toward the ham bone ] 



344 Chap. IX. Examination and Judgment of Prepared Products 

As a result of gas formation within the ham during pickling, small 
vacuoles may develop in the muscles (caro porosa). 

Regarding the iridiscence of smoked meat on the cut surface (salmon 
ham), see page 341. 

The judging of meat products belonging to this section does not offer 
anything special. As the use of boracic acid, sulphurous acid salts, and 
formaldehyde is prohibited in the German Empire, all meat found on the 
market to be treated with these substances should be confiscated as unfit 
for consumption. For police or penal prosecutions of such offenders the 
prehminary tests mentioned should be supplemented by exact chemical 
examinations. 

The iridescence and vacuole formations in meat are of no importance 
when other processes of decomposition can be excluded. 

[The use of the above-mentioned preservatives is prohibited in the 
United States (see B. A. L Order 150, Reg. 22, sees, i and 2)]. 



D, Various Conserve Preparations 

Meat Extract (pages 41 and 91). — Decomposition and mould formation, which 
are easily recognizable, spoil meat extract and render it unfit for food. 

Wilhelmy made investigations regarding 
the bacterial flora of meat extracts. The 
'■^ number of organisms, which principally 
occur as spores, is not very large. 
Adulterations are only recognizable by a 
^,^ ^^ E careful chemical examination. 

^^^^^^~* /I The suspicion of the presence of horse- 

meat is excited when the extract is of a 
„ thick slimy consistence, has a fatty taste, 

F- -jSK S&WI^ jj and does not dissolve clearly in water. 

, // Broth made from such extract forms films 

on the surface like cream on milk, which 
-^ repeatedly reappear after removal. 

Lard and Cooking Tallow. — The principal 
Fig. 151. Refractometer by Zeiss- adulterations are mentioned on page 92. 
Wollnjr im Jena. A, fixed half of the Their detection, as well as the determina- 
prism case; 5, movable half; CJoint tion of the degree of acidity and rancidity 
D, nozzle for the attachment of a ^ „ . , -i 1 1 ^ 1 • 1 

rubber tube for conducting warm (P^^^ 335.', is only possible by technical 
water ; £, nozzle for the attachment examination. 

of a rubber tube for drawing off the For control of the fat trade, the Zeiss- 

warm water; T, closing pin for the ^qU^^ refractometer is best adapted for 
prism case; G, opening for adjust- ". . . . , . , 

ment of the scale; H, supporter for ascertaining suspicious kinds and grades. 
B; J, mirror. This is also used for the examination of fat 

imported from foreign countries. 

For examination of fats which are not fluid at ordinary temperatures, the 

apparatus must be brought to a corresponding high temperature and maintained 

there. This is accomplished through a warm water heating arrangement. The 

filtrated liquid fat is placed at the one-half of the prism case B, and the prism from 




Various Conserved Preparations 345 

B is pressed against that of A. Then, through the ocular, the micrometer scale 
is observed on the inside of the tube, and the refraction thus observed is compared 
with the temperature as well as with the permissible value limits on a scaled table. 
Recently the apparatus has "been improved by Wollny through a so-called indicator 
thermometer, the scale of which does not contain the temperature degrees, but it 
indicates the permitted value limits for butter and lard, so that by comparing the 
micrometer value and the thermometer degrees, it is at once disclosed whether the 
sample is suspicious. 

If the examination with the refractometer indicates a conspicuous high nega- 
tive ( — ) value, or a higher positive value (-}-) of more than 1.3 (-|-i-3) the fat 
should then be examined for an adulteration. 

In various tallows — beef, mutton, and goat tallow — which appear on the market 
in a raw or rendered state only the preserved condition comes under consideration. 
^ Tallow with an abnormal odor, and that which is changed in color, should be 
utilized only for technical purposes. 

In the examination of fats the following principles should be 
observed : 

1. In the presence of moulds, fungi, or colonies of bacteria, it 
should be determined whether these represent — 

a An insignificant localized pollution from the outside (for instance, 
as a result of slight defects in the packing) . 

b A significant outside covering of the fat, or 
c Proliferations in the inside of the fat. 

2. In the judgment of the color, care should be taken to see whether 
the fat manifests a color which is not characteristic for that particular 
kind of fat, or whether it shows any perceptible foreign ingredient. 

3. In the test for odor it should be examined for a rancid, tallowish, 
oily, sour, musty, mouldy, as well as for a putrid repulsive odor. 

4. In testing for the taste, it shotild be established whether there is 
a bitter or a repulsive taste. Care should also be taken to detect foreign 
ingredients by the taste. 

5. If a musty odor or taste is established the fat should be examined 
to learn if this originates from insignificant outside pollution of the fat 
or of the package. 

Of the chemical examinations of fats it is deemed advisable to 
describe only the tests for foreign colorings and for adulteration with 
cotton-seed oil. 

Test for Foreign Coloring Matter. — The presence of foreign coloring 
matter in fat is established by dissolving the melted fat in about double 
the quantity of absolute alcohol. In artificially colored fats the cooled 
alcoholic solution shows a pronounced yellow or reddish-yellow coloration. 

For the demonstration of certain coal-tar colorings, 2-3 g. of fat is 
dissolved in 5 c. c. of ether, and the solution is thoroughly shaken in a 



346 Chap. IX. Examination and Judgment of Prepared Products 

test tube with 5 c. c. of hydrochloric acid, which has a specific gravity of 
1,125. Ii^ the presence of certain azo coloring matters the layer of hydro- 
chloric acid which sinks to the bottom shows a distinct red coloration. 

Test for Cotton-seed OH. — In a corked flask, which is provided with 
an upright tube, 5 c. c. of fat are mixed with an equal quantity of amyl- 
alcohol and 5 c. c. of a i per cent, solution of sulphur in carbon bisulphide, 
and heated for 15 minutes in a boiling-water bath. If a coloration does 
not appear, 5 c. c. more of the sulphur solution are added and it is again 
heated for ^ of an hour. A distinct red coloration of the solution is pro- 
duced by the presence of cotton-seed oil. 

If the above-described test indicates that the fat is adulterated with 
vegetable oils a test should be made for phytosterin. 

The test for the demonstration of phytosterin should be carried out 
in the following way : 

One hundred grams of the fat is melted in a water bath in a flask of 
about I liter capacity, provided with a return condenser, and the fat is 
then saponified over the boiling-water bath by adding 200 c. c. of an alco- 
holic potassium hydroxide solution, which contains 200 g. potassium 
hydroxide in i liter of alcohol (70 per cent.). After the conclusion of 
the saponification, which requires about )^ hour, the saponified solution is 
mixed with 600 c. c. of water, and after cooling it is shaken out four times 
with ether in a separating funnel. For the first shaking 800 c. c. of ether 
is used, while for the three following 400 c. c. of ether is used for each ; 
the solution is then distilled and the residue is again heated in a water 
bath for 5-10 minutes with 10 c. c. of the above alcoholic potassium 
hydroxide. The solution is then mixed with 20 c. c. of water, and after 
cooling is shaken twice, using 200 c. c. of ether in each shaking. The 
ether solution is washed four times with 10 c. c. of water, then is filtered 
through a dry filter and the ether is distilled oft". The residue is placed 
in a glass dish and dried at 100° C. Then 2-3 c. c. of acetic acid anhy- 
dride is added, the dish is covered with a watch glass, and heated to boil- 
ing on a wire net for about ^ minute. The excess of acetic acid anhy- 
dride is then evaporated off on the water bath. The residue is then crys- 
talized 4-5 times from 1-1.5 c. c. of absolute alcohol, and after the third 
crystalization the melting point is determined for each crystalization. If 
the last crystalization product melts only at 117° C. (corrected melting 
point), or higher, the test for vegetable oil should be considered 
established. 

Caviar. — In the examination of caviar mentioned on page 94, it should be 
considered in regard to color, consistence, odor, taste, neutral reaction, size of eggs, 
and foreign ingredients. 



Fowl, Game, Fish, etc. 347 

Adulterations are made with sago, oil, bouillon, white beer, and sometimes are 
very difficult to recognize. 

Acid and rancid conditions in suspicious cases should be chemically determined, 
as should also suspiciously high, plain salt contents. 

Putrefactive decompositions are evident in the presence of ammonia and hydro- 
gen sulphide. 

Judgment. — In the previously mentioned preparations, all decompositions 
should be judged in accordance with the degree; and if such be present in caviar, it 
is to be always considered injurious to health. A marked acid and rancid state, 
renders fat and caviar spoiled (inferior quality), and even unfit for food. 

According to Niebel, the line between inferior quality and rancid caviar appears 
to be a 4.5 per cent, content of free fatty acid. 

2. Examination and Judging of Fowls, Game, Fish, 
Amphibiae, Crustaceans, and Mollusks 

The meat belonghig in thi.s section has been ah-eady mentioned in 
Chapters I and II;, with reference to its origin and characteristics. As the 
conditions to be observed in the examination and judgment of such meat 
corresponds in general with those which were established for food ani- 
mals in the narrow sense (page 134), it is necessary to mention only a 
few characteristics in the following : 

A. Fowl 

Domestic fowl should be examined in life, and also when slaughtered, 
after plucking. The slaughter wound should be noted in fowls which are 
brought to the market after being plucked. 

The skin should not be discolored (bluish or bluish-gray, faded or 
shrivelled), and should not disclose cadaver spots. 

Light, poorly nourished geese are occasionally inflated, according to 
Ostertag. 

1, Age 

Regarding the age of fowl, a distinction is made, as a rule, only 
between young and old ; that is, whether it is under one year old or over. 
Niebel points out the following signs of age : 

The domestic pigeon is considered young until the attainment of sexual matu- 
rity; but most unfledged animals (5-6 weeks; are usually sold as young. In very 
young squabs the breast appears white. Very soon it changes to a bluish-red, until 
it finally becomes blue-red. In very young pigeons the entire breast-bone is 
flexible; in young ones only the posterior end, while in old pigeons it cannot be 
flexed at all. A young pigeon possesses long yellowish down, the tail-feathers 
appear stemmed ; that is, the shaft of the same on the lower end does not contain 
any feathers ; the feet are closed. An older, full-fledged pigeon, has red-colored 
feet and no down. According to Cornevin, the bill for the first 6-8 months is soft, 
later becoming hard. 



348 Chap. IX. Examination and Judgment of Prepared Products 

In very young domestic fowl the back portion of the breast-bone can be easily 
bent outward; in young fowls it breaks easily, and in old fowls, only when con- 
siderable force is applied. The breastbone keel bends sideways readily in young 
animals ; in old ones it remains stable. The ischium and the os pubis can be 
pressed forward without breaking in young animals, while in old ones the latter 
occurs with a cracking sound. An old cock has a spur over i cm. in length, which 
in the young is correspondingly smaller. Occasionally spurs may be also met with 
in hens. Older hens have hard spurs and rough scales on the legs ; the lower half 
of the bill cannot be bent at all with the fingers, as is the case with young hens. 

In young guinea fowls the feather flag of the outside quill feather is pointed; 
in the old birds it is more or less rounded. 

In turkeys the age is determined by the spur, and also by the above-mentioned 
appearance of the first quill-feather. This is also decisive in turkey hens, in which 
the rectum of old animals is also surrounded by a red ring. In a young domestic 
goose or domestic duck the trachea at the entrance of the thorax can be easily 
impressed; in the old it resists pressure. If a goose still possess j^ellow down, it 
is then at the most but 10 weeks old. 

2, External Diseases 

Of the external diseases of fowl, may be mentioned chicken-pox (epithelioma 
contagiosum), which preferably occurs in hens, turkey hens and pigeons, on the 
combs, wattles, corners of the bill, and also on the mucous membranes of the head 
and neck, and, according to Marx and Sticker, is produced by an ultramicroscopical 
filterable virus. 

The comb-scab (tinea galli, chicken favuso and the leg-scab (dermatoryctes 
mutans), which leads to the development of the so-called lime feet (scaly feet), 
should be considered. 

3, Internal Diseases 

The numerous animal parasites occurring internally in fowls are, as a rule, of no 
importance for the veterinary inspector, except in severe infestations and cachectic 
conditions, thereby effecting changes in the meat. The connective tissue mite 
(symplectapetes or laminosioptes cysticola), however, deserves special mention, as it 
frequently produces in the subcutaneous and muscular connective tissue of chickens 
dull white or yellowish spots and nodules, up to the size of i mm., occurring fre- 
quently in very large numbers. The contents of these formations are otherwise 
granular, fatty or chalky. In severe infestations with this parasite the meat 
becomes unfit for human food; milder cases make it a spoiled (deficient) food. 
The air sac mite (cystodites nodus) lives in the neck, breast, and abdominal air 
sacs in chickens and pheasants, where they may cause inflammatory changes and 
necrosis. In invasions of the lungs and trachea, inflammation and dyspnea are 
observed. As a result of the numerous presence of davainea mutabilis in the intes- 
tines of chickens, cachectic conditions may develop (Ruther). 

Of the specific infectious diseases of fowl, the following come under 
consideration : 

(a) Chicken cholera is a septicemic affection which occurs in all 
domestic fowl, and spreads rapidly in an epizootic form. 

The cause is the bacterium avicidum, which belongs to the group of 
hemorrhagic septicemia bacilH (page 316). 



Fowl, Game, Fish, etc. 349 

Svinptoiiis and Lesions. — In the living animal the symptoms are not 
characteristic: Fever, dullness, difficulty in respiration, feathering bris- 
tled, and livid coloring of the comb in chickens. 

Occasionally also there is sudden death without showing pronounced 
signs of illness. The anatomical findings consist principally in a hemor- 
rhagic enteritis; hemorrhages under the serous membranes, epicardium, 
on the heart and in the lungs ; infarctions of the muscles which in longer 
sickness may also degenerate. 

The recognition of chicken cholera depends on the demonstration of 
the bacteria, which may be found in the blood of larger veins. In doubt- 
ful cases Kitt recommends the inoculation of blood into pigeons with the 
aid of lance prickings of the chest muscles. In case of chicken cholera, 
•death occurs in 12-48 hours. Animals slaughtered in the last stage of the 
disease, which becomes conspicuous by the cadaver spots on the inside of 
the legs and on the lower portion of the abdomen, are, as a rule, not 
offered for sale. 

Judgment. — As there is no danger to human health from eating these 
fowl, the degree of the disease and the condition of the bird decide 
whether it should be considered as highly spoiled and accordingly con- 
demned, or after a previous boiling it should be admitted for consumption. 
The latter precaution is necessary from a veterinary police standpoint, for 
preventing the spread of bacteria. 

(b) Chicken pest is an acute contagious, infectious disease, which 
almost exclusively occurs in chickens, very rarely in pigeons and water- 
fowl, and terminates fatally within 2 to 4 days. The cause is an ultra- 
microscopic filterable virus. 

Symptoms and Lesions. — In the living animal there are noted dull- 
ness, lethargy, dark-red coloration of the comb and wattles, slimy dis- 
charges from the opening of the mouth, occasionally profuse diarrhea. 
The anatomical findings in quickly terminating cases may be limited to 
several punctiform hemorrhages on the pericardium, breastbone, and 
peritoneum. Otherwise there is a collection of mucus in the nasal and 
buccal cavities, pulmonary hyperemia, pericarditis, hemorrhages on the 
mucous membranes and under the serous membranes, intestinal catarrh, 
fibrinous exudate in the abdominal cavity, salpingitis, cloudy swelling of 
the liver, edema on chest and neck. 

For the recognition of chicken pest it is always advisable to inocu- 
late a pigeon and a chicken ; if the chicken pest is present, death occurs 
in from 12-48 hours. Besides, the absence of the causative bacillus of 
chicken cholera and absence of a marked intestinal inflammation are 
decisive. 

Regarding the judging, the same principles should be applied as in 
chicken cholera. 



350 Chap. IX. Examination and Judgment of Prepared Products 

For chicken cholera and chicken pest compulsory notification was 
established by proclamation of the Imperial Chancellor in 1903. 

(c) Chicken diphthena is an infectious disease of chickens and pig- 
eons running an acute or chronic course, and which is produced by the 
bacillus diphtherise avium. 

Lesion's. — Yellowish-white membranous deposits on the tongue, pal- 
ate, and buccal mucous membrane appear, and in advanced affections also 
croupous diphtheritic inflammation of the mucous membranes of the eye, 
the nose, the deeper air passages and the intestinal canal. In the latter 
cases, it is generally accompanied by anemia, cloudy swellings of the 
parenchyma, and hemorrhages on the heart. 

Judgment. — Although Piorkowski has recently declared chicken 
diphtheria identical with hmiian diphtheria, still there are no deleterious 
effects observed on human health from ingestion of the meat ; neither are 
there any observations recorded of transmission of the disease from 
chicken to man. Whether the meat should be considered spoiled, depends 
on its objective changes. 

(d) Tnhercidosis of fozvl should be judged for the present in the 
same manner as in mammalia (page 267), although there is no pathogen- 
icity of the bacilli of fowl tuberculosis for man and for certain other 
domestic animals. 

Finally there should be mentioned fowl arthritis with changes of the 
joints, and calcareous incrustations in the skin, kidneys, and serous mem- 
branes. For the test of uric acid deposits the murexid reaction is applied 
as follows : The concrements are mixed with a small quantity of nitric 
acid, evaporated by drying to an onion-red mass, which, on the addition 
of a drop of ammonia, gives a beautiful purple-red color. The meat of 
animals severely affected with arthritis must be considered as spoiled 
food. Egg concrements in the body cavity, which is occasionally observed 
in hens, are of no importance. 

The general judging of fowl meat does not deviate from the gen- 
eral principles described for other flesh. 

4, Post'Tnortem Changes of Fowl Meat 

Borchmann called attention to the unfavorable influence on goose 
meat through long storing of undrawn geese in refrigerators and cold- 
storage houses (ice geese, Russian geese). The objective deterioration 
of the appearance of such geese consists in a whitish-yellow to a whitish- 
green discoloration of the skin ("cadaver color'"), which after thawing out 
becomes oily, yellow, leather-like and tightly attached. Besides, there 
may be present hypostasis of the skin, of the lower abdomen and rump. 
The muscles of cold-storage geese are red-violet or deep dark red, and 
when roasted appear dark brown to brownish-black and tough. The fat 



Fowl, Game, Fish, etc. 351 

of a cold-storage goose is oily, does not stiffen and deposits a gray, gritty 
sediment ; its taste is rancid or musty. Due to these characteristics, cold- 
storage geese are, under all conditions, of inferior quality, and besides they 
may also be in a highly spoiled condition and consequently unfit for 
consumption. 

Bacon also pointed out the dangers of long storing of undrawn fowl 
in cold-storage houses. 

B, Game 

The meat of game is characterized in general by its high blood content, which 
favors its decomposition when unsuitably kept, notwithstanding the fact that the 
meat of game resists putrefaction for comparatively a long time. 

Although game should, as a rule, disclose shot wounds, nevertheless wild fowl 
^n be seen occasionally which were caught in traps or nets, and only display traces 
of strangulation. The shot wounds which are produced post mortem have no 
bloody infiltrated borders. 

1, Age 

Regarding the age which sometimes comes into consideration in 
haired game, principally in rabbits, deer, fallow deer, roe, and boars Nie- 
bel established the following fixed points : 

In young rabbits the thorax can be easily pressed in ; and in compressing the 
posterior branches of the maxillse, the two middle incisors spread apart as wide as 
the thickness of a finger. The hair of a young rabbit, especially on the abdomen, 
is softer than that of an old animal. The aponeuroses of the lumbar region are, 
in the young rabbit, grayish-white, thin, transparent; in the old, yellowish-white 
and not transparent. The ribs of young animals break easily ; those of the old do 
rot. The pelvic symphysis is cartilaginous in young animals ; in old rabbits it is 
ossified. The meat of old rabbits is dark red, while in young rabbits it is pale and 
grayish-red. 

In deer the question occasionally arises whether it is a calf or a full-grown 
deer. According to Whering, an alleged deer which possesses less than six molar 
teeth in each row, and accordingly is less than 16 to 18 months old, must be consid- 
ered a calf. Whering indicates the changes of teeth in the roe, common stag, and 
fallow deer in the following exhibit : 

Roe Common stag Fallow deer 

The center incisors appear after... 6-8 months 10 months 15 months 

The inside laterals appear after.... lo-ii months 13 months 17 months 

The outside laterals appear after 12 months 15 months 20 months 

The corners appear after 13 months 22 months 18 months 

The premolars appear after 14-15 months 24 months 30 months 

The young of the wild boar have at 3 to 4 months 3 pairs of temporary 
incisors, 3 temporary molars in each row, and temporary tusks. When 8 to 9 
months, they have besides, one permanent molar in each row and the tusks. A 
shoat of 20 months has 3 pairs of permanent incisors, the wolf-teeth, 5 permanent 
molars in each row, and the temporary tusks are replaced by permanent ones. In 
boars and sows 21/2 years old the last permanent molar is also present. 



352 Chap. IX. Examination and Judgment of Prepared Products 

For wild fowl Niebel gives the following signs of age: 

An old partridge is distinguished from a young one by the stronger-developed 
structure, gray to grayish-blue legs, which in the young are more yellow, and by 
yellowish-brown feathers on the head, which in the young are gray. But after 
4 months the young partridge also has yellowish-brown head-feathers, and there- 
fore after that age only the outside quill-feathers show indications by which to 
decide, their ends being pointed in young partridges, while in the old they are 
rounded. 

In the mountain partridge the age is determined by the extreme outside 
quill-feather. 

In the woodcock, heathcock, heathpout, and white grouse the extreme outside 
quill decides, together with the breastbone and spurs. 

The spur of a young pheasant cock is short and stubby; that of an old bird is 
ID mm. long, and 7 mm. wide; in a cock about 10 months old the spur is only 
6 mm. long. 

The breastbone is flexible in earliest youth ; it can be broken in young birds ; 
in old ones, however, it is broken only with great difficulty. The feathers, until 
the second year, are of a dark color tint, which remains permanently in the hen ; 
while in the cock at 2 years, the variegated feathering and long tail-feathers 
develop. 

In wild geese and ducks the firmness of the trachea is decisive. 

In young bustards the end of the chestbone is flexible. In snipe, quail, and 
others the age is of no importance. 

2, Sex 

The establishment of sex is occasionally of some importance in the evis- 
cerated deer. 





Fig. 152 Fig. 153 

Fig. 152. Pelvis of a doe with a front view of the os pubis and a section 
through the symphysis. 

Fig. 153. Pelvis of a fallow deer with a front view of the os pubis and a section 
through the symphysis. 



Fowl, Game, Fish, etc. 353 

When the sexual organs are removed and the cranial covering sawed off, the 
pelvis is decisive, as indicated by Whering and Schaff, in the following : 

The pelvis of the doe (Fig. 152), when viewed from above appears broader, 
more spacious, less slender than the pelvis of the buck (Fig. 153) ; the distance of 
the outside angles of the ileum from each other is as 50:40. On the pubic sym- 
physis the pelvis of the buck is thick and like a protuberance; that of the doe is 
thin, flat in front, and slightly hollowed. It is emphasized by Whering that the 
appearance of the symphysis can only be utilized with a degree of certainty in 
older deer, as all the young individuals have a thickened protuberant symphysis ; 
accordingly, Malkmus recommends cutting out the halves of the pelvic bones and 
boiling them. 

The common stag and fallow deer show also similar sexual differences in 
the pelvis. 

Regarding the value of the meat of both sexes in haired and feathered game, 
•the meat of male animals is preferred in general on account of its stronger taste of 
game. During estrum the meat of deer is supposed to have a repulsive taste 
similar to that of the buck. 

3, Diseases 

The important diseases which occur in game have already been men- 
tioned in Chapter VII. Anthrax, hemorrhagic septicemia, and animal 
parasites, measles, trichina in wild boars, as well as the so-called rabbit 
measles (Cysticercus pisiformis) should be especially indicated. Regarding 
measles of deer and reindeer, see pages 239 and 240. Strongylides in 
the lungs and intestines of rabbits may produce severe affections and may 
result in numerous fatalities. 

4, Post-'mortem Changes 

Regarding post-mortem changes (page 327), no concessions should 
be made by the sanitary police to the current conception of "land flavor." 
In animals not eviscerated the intestinal putrefaction soon passes over to 
the abdominal walls, and discolors them green or bluish-green. The 
appearance of the eyes is alSo an indication of the freshness of game; if 
they are markedly sunken, it is then quite certain the game was shot sev- 
eral days previously. 

Regarding the judging of meat of game there is nothing to be added 
to what has already been described regarding other flesh. 

C Fish 

The killing of fish should be preceded by stunning with a blow on 
the head. 

Although in the water of moderate climates there occur no fish the 
meat of which in itself would be poisonous,^ yet it should be remembered, 
that the roe of perch and occasionally also that from pike, herring, carp. 



1 For further particulars see Kobert, on "Poisonous Fish and Fish Poisons.'" 
Vortag, Stuttgart, 1905. 
24 



354 Chap. IX. Examination and Judgment of Prepared Products 

trench, and breem may contain during the spawning time, cholera-like 
acting poisons (barbel cholera, signatera). 

The raw meat and blood of the river eel and sea eel, as well as of the lamprey, 
contain a tox-albumen (ichthyotoxicon) which is destroyed by cooking. In the 
lamprey there may also appear a poison in the skin, which remains active even 
when the fish are boiled to a soup. Some of the fish also possess poison glands in 
the mouth and skin; in the latter class are included the so-called "poison stingers'' 
(dragon fish, sea scorpion). For distinguishing fresh fish from stale and decom- 
posed fish, the following fixed points are of service : 



Condition 


Scales 


Eyes 


Gills 


Body in general 
and meat 


Spec. 


gravity 


Fresh 


Glittering, 
free of 
slime, firm- 
ly adhe- 
rent. 


Standing out 


Gills, lids 
and mouth 
closed. 


Solid; placing 
the fish hori- 
zontally n 
the hand, it 
does not bend. 
Meat firm, 
elastic, tight 
on bones. 


Sink in 


water. 


Not fresh, 


More or less Red border- 


Lids open or 


Body bends eas- 


Swim 


on llif 


stale for 


easily re- 


ed, sunk- 


can be eas- 


ily, especially 


water 




some time. 


movable, 


en; cornea 


ily open- 


at the tail 








slightly 


cloudy. 


ed ; gills 


end; occa- 








slimy or 




pale, yel- 


sionally bloat- 








smeary. 




low, dirty, 
or grayish- 
red, cov- 
ered with 
the same 
kind of 
fluid, odor 
disagreea - 
ble. 


ing of the ab- 
domen, whicli 
may be blu- 
ish discolored. 
Finger im- 
pressions are 
easily made, 
and remain ; 
meat is soft, 
can be easily 
removed from 






Putrefied. .. 


Very loose, 
cov e r e d 
with a 


Breaking 
down; are 
frequently 


Very off-col- 
ored ; ex- 
tremely of- 


the bone. 
Withered, flab- 
by, soft, pale, 
bloated. The 


Swim 
water 


on the 




s m e a r y 
slime - like 


removed. 


fensive 
odor. 


meat is sloppy. 








mass of 














disagreea- 














ble odor. 













With the possible exception of carp, the age of fish is not regarded. To estab- 
lish it a scale from the side should be cleaned in alcohol and held against the light. 



Fowl, Game, Fish, etc. 355 

If in the center of this scale a light point is noticed, the carp is then of one sum- 
mer. In a two-summer carp, the central point is noticed, surrounded by a ring; 
that of three summers has two rings, and so forth. 

Deceptions in Commerce with Fish Meat. — Occasionally a species of cod fish 
(Merluccius vulgaris) is used for sea salmon (Raebiger). According to Glage 
perch (Caraux vulgaris) should not be sold for genuine sprats. Gadus pollachius 
goes as Spanish salmon. The meat of the thorn-hound (Acanthias vulgaris) is 
offered as sea eel, and sea salmon, as well as that of the common nose-fish 
(Chondrostoma nasus), a cheap sweet-water fish, is sold as mackerel, according to 
Rehmet. 

The substitutions of sprats for sardines or anchovies in box conserves is 
determined, according to Henseval, by a spiny comb on the abdominal side of the 
sprats, which is characteristic of these fish, and which can be perceived by passing 
the finger over the body in the direction of the head. 
«• Of the diseases of fish, the following should be referred to : 

(a) Nodular disease (morbus nodulosus, fish pox) commonly occurs in barbs, 
carp, tench, perch, pike, and red-eye. It is produced by myxosporidiae (myxobolus). 
The latter are located in the epithelia of the skin, muscles, gills, and in the internal 
organs, and produce cyst-like tumors, swellings and abscesses. In the rump mus- 
cles of various species of salmon, cysts may appear the size of hazelnuts produced 
by myxosporidiae (Henneguya Zschokki) which displace the muscle and become 
visible externally in the form of boils. The meat has a yellowish color, becomes 
soft, jelly-like, and tastes bitter. 

(b) Fish Measles. — The plerocercoid of the bothriocephalus latus (broad 
tapeworm of man) lives in the muscles and the various viscera of the pike, turbot, 
perch, trout, grayling, salmon, and its varieties. In 

Germany these measles occur principally in fish from 
the Ost Sea, and from the E^st Prussian Seas, but may 
be also observed in those from the Starnberger Sea. 

These worm-like plerocercoid are 8-30 mm. long, not 
encapsulated, and lie mostly slightly curved with their 
grayish-white indistinctly annulated bodies. They are 
easily found on the pyloric appendices of the turbot; 
they may also occur in the caviar of pike. ^ * 

Cysts of 3.5 mm. long and 1.5 mm. broad, containing 
the larva of taenia tetrarhynchus were found in the meat r ,^\ ^^4- Plerocercoid 
X JJ2 1 J 1 1-t. ^ L X ^1- t. 1 r of bothriocephalus latus, 

of codfish and halibut, but they are harmless for man ^^^^ ^^^ musculature of 

(Bergmann). the pike; a, head extend- 

(c) The young form of the ascaris capsularia, ed; b, head drawn in. 
described by Leuckart as filaria piscium, lives as a 

2-5 cm. long encapsulated roundworm in the meat of various salt-water fish, and 
especially of the gadus callarias (a species of codfish). Cooking the meat facili- 
tates their finding, as in the process the worms turn red-brown in color. 

(d) Muscular distomes of various kinds are not infrequent in fish. 

(e) The young state of the distomum felineum which produces cancer-like 
affections of the bile passages in the liver of man, is supposed to live, according 
to Askanazy, in the red-eye (Leuciscus rutilus) ; however, thus far only the eggs 
of the parasite have been found in this fish. 

(f) The various infectious diseases of fish can be left unconsidered, as the 
fish with such affections spoil rapidly and are seldom placed on the market. For 




356 Chap. IX. Examination and Judgment of Prepared Products 

details, see Hofer's Handbook of the Diseases of Fish, and Ostertag's Handbook 
of Meat Inspection. 

According to Kobert, the bacillus piscicidus agilis (Sieber) produces a septi- 
cemic affection in carp, which may also become injurious to man. 

Judgment of Diseased Fish. — Fish with bothriocephalis measles are injurious to 
health. In all other diseases the meat is, as a rule, to be considered as highly 
spoiled. 

Regarding post-mortem changes in fish meat, it is safe to emphasize that such 
conditions appear rapidly, and that in putrid fish poisons develop which act more 
intensely than the putrefactive toxins in meat of warm-blooded animals. The fish 
poison, according to van Ermengem, is similar to sausage poison, and appears to 
be strongest at the beginning of putrefaction. 

D, Crustaceans, Mollusks, and Amphibians 

Crabs and lobsters should only be offered for sale alive, as they spoil quickly 
when boiled. Crabs boiled after they have died, have distended bodies, and the 
caudal fin is not rolled in. A lobster which has been boiled shortly before death, 
has the caudal end turned toward the abdominal side, and can be readily moved 
up and down ("Wippen"). If the lobster be boiled some time after death, the 
meat of the caudal portion cannot be taken out intact; it crumbles between the 
fingers. 

Of diseases there should be mentioned the "spotted disease" which produces 
black spots on the shell, and is caused by oidium astaci, and the crab plague found 
by Hofer to be produced by the bacterium pestis astaci in the muscles is also 
pathogenic for fish. Mycosis astacina is accompanied by milky discoloration of the 
under side and mortification of single limbs of crabs. 

Canned lobster is always alkaline, even in an unobjectionable fresh state. 
Adulterations occur with the palimiurus vulgaris. As these shell crabs have no 
claws, the canned products are often sold as "lobsters without claws." 

Occasionally the inferior quality North Sea crab is boiled in fuchsin water and 
sold as Ost Sea crab. The coloring is then spotted, and the eggs under the abdo- 
men are bright red ; by boiling crabs in alcohol the artificial coloring matter may be 
extracted. Furthermore, the zoological signs should be considered. 

Dead oysters show open shells, and at the beginning of decomposition a black 
ring appears on their inner surface. They very soon develop a disagreeable odor. 
According to Bardet, all oysters are diseased during summer. They show a milky 
appearance, and their liver is greatly enlarged, gray, and white. To obtain a green 
color, oysters are placed in a copper acetate solution, whereby they turn grass-green 
but not dark green. If vinegar is poured over such oysters an inserted iron needle 
will show a metallic copper luster, while, with the addition of ammonia, the oysters 
turn a dark blue (Springfield). 

That oysters may be carriers of typhoid bacilli has been repeatedly 
established. 

The common mussel (clams) is dead when the shells do not close after they 
are taken out of the water. Certain mussels, especially those from stagnant water, 
may contain poisons, the development and nature of which is still obscure. 
Mytilotoxin occurs principally in the liver, and in man produces the poisoning 
called mytilismus, which belongs to the ichthyosismus (page 364). Poisonous 
mussels are supposed to produce a sweetish nauseating bouillon odor; they are also 
less pigmented, and their shells are easier broken and are broader than those which 



Crustaceans, Mollusks, and Amphybians 357 

are poisonous. The liver is larger and more mellow. Water in which poisonous 
mussels are boiled appears bluish; that of healthy mussels is light. The meat of 
poisonous mussels is yellow, that of the nonpoisonous is whitish. Placed in 
alcohol, poisonous mussels color it a strong golden-yellow ; the nonpoisonous 
scarcely make any noticeable change. 

According to Salkowski, if this solution is heated with a few drops of nitric 
acid in a reagent glass, the poisonous solution turns a grayish-green, while the non- 
poisonous remains almost colorless. 

In snails, turtles, and frogs' legs, special changes and injurious effects were not 
observed. 

Judgment.- — On account of the great danger which diseased, poi.sonous, or 
decomposing crustaceans and shell fish produce to human health (mytilismus), such 
food should be positively withheld from human consumption. 



X. Meat Poisonings 



In this chapter special diseases of animals are not treated, nor are 
injurious effects of meat, but more particularly diseases of men which 
appear as a result of meat consumption, and which on account of the 
symptomatic picture are designated poisonings. 

Therefore, while there is nothing which could be supplemented here 
in relation to meat inspection proper, these meat poisonings cannot be 
left undiscussed, as they are of great importance to meat hygiene, and 
their etiological relations are noted partly in important diseases of ani- 
mals and partly in particular changes of the meat. 

Poisonings which are to be traced to consumption of meat can be 
arranged, according to van Ermengem, into three groups with reference 
to their etiology — namely, meat poisoning as a result of micro-organisms 
which belong to the group of the bacillus enteritidis ; meat poisonings 
through the bacterium coli and the proteus group ; and botulismus. 

1, Meat Poisoning as a Result of Bac, Enteritidis 

The nature of meat poisonings which are produced by the group of 
bac. enteritidis, consists either in an intoxication of the human body with 
chemical poisons (bacterial toxins, toxalbumens, toxigenic substances), 
developed by the micro-organisms in the animal body ; or else in an infec- 
tion with the bacteria themselves ; or finally in a united action of toxic sub- 
stances and the bacilli of infection. 

In so-called paratyphoid meat poisoning there enters into consideration the 
action of the metabolic products of bacteria which in themselves are not poisonous, 
but at the same time increase the action and aggressiveness of the bacilli. 

The character of the diseases developed in this manner in man 
varies extraordinarily. According to van Ermengem, the symptoms in 
general show an acute course, and develop as an attack of cholerine, chol- 
era nostras, or an inflammatory gastro-enteritis (febris gastrica), some- 
times accompanied by muscular weakness or ataxy. The symptoms may, 
therefore, act delusively in a typhoid condition. Frequently, however, 
they can be hardly distinguished from a gastro-intestinal catarrh. 

Convalescence is always slow ; relapses and even fever of two months' 
duration (Neter) may occur. Mortality hardly exceeds 2 to 5 per cent. 

Without doubt the various forms of the disease are greatly influ- 
enced by the nature and intensity of the poisons in consumed meat, by 
their quantity, preparation, etc. 
358 



Meat Poisoning as a Result of Bac. Enteritidis 359 

Accordingly, since there does not exist a uniform typical clinical pic- 
ture in meat poisoning, it would be possible to establish a diagnosis of 
poisoning by meat only by connecting a concrete affection with corre- 
sponding complex symptoms, together with the history of consumption of 
certain meat foods, and in the absence of other kinds of disease-producing 
influences. That suspicion of meat poisoning is justifiable if symptoms 
occur soon after the ingestion of meat appears self-evident, but the time 
of incubation may also extend over several days. 

Causes. — Based on extensive statistics, it can be stated that the septic 
and pyemic affections with their various forms in food animals (page 293) 
are principally the causes of meat poisoning proper. But as these affec- 
.tions of animals result very frequently in their emergency slaughter, it, 
therefore, is not at all surprising that by far the most meat-poisoning 
cases may be traced back to emergency-slaughtered animals. 

To what extent the bacteria of the enteritidis group play a part in 
the development of septic and pyemic affections, has not yet been 
explained. From a diseased food animal, either the entire meat may con- 
tain injurious properties or the latter man be confined only to single 
parts of the viscera of the animal. In both instances the virulence of the 
meat or viscera may be widely different, and accordingly the degree of 
the poisoning may vary greatly. The virulence of the meat depends on 
the severity and nature of the affection of the food animal at the time 
of slaughter and the bleeding of the animal as well as on the nature of 
storing and the preparation of the meat. 

With reference to storing, it must be accepted that under certain 
conditions (heat, dampness) the post-mortem poisonous properties of 
meat are further increased by continuing the activities of the causal agents 
of the infection. Thus Basenau, Poels and Dhont have proved that 
the species of bacteria which stand very closely to the bacterium enteri- 
tidis find in the .muscular tissues very suitable growing conditions for 
a luxuriant development, even at a low temperature (10° C). The 
preparation of the meat plays an important part, inasmuch as experience 
has shown that the consumption of raw meat, as a rule, results in more 
severe disturbances than from boiled and roasted preparations ; for the 
exciters of infection which exist in the meat proper are to a great extent 
destroyed, and thereby the danger which threatens human beings through 
the multiplication of these causal factors is averted by their incorporation 
into the digestive apparatus. That the chemical poisonous substances 
(toxins of the bac. enteritidis) which are present in the meat, are not 
destroyed by culinary boiling or roasting, has been frequently established 
by experience (see below) ; and this serves as a proof that the nature of 
a large number of poisonings by meat is an intoxication. It is readily 
apparent that these toxic substances may be weakened through the prepa- 



360 Chap. X. Meat Poisonings 

ration of the meat by soaking or through the formation of chemical com- 
binations, which at the same time causes an attenuation of the poison in 
the meat. It has been shown by careful observation that in certain cases 
the meat broth contained prominent toxic actions. 

Inasmuch as individual organs, especially the liver and kidneys, 
proved to be poisonous while the meat proper and the muscular structure 
of the same animal proved to be harmless, it must be accepted that these 
organs were either exclusively the seats of the toxic elements, or by virtue 
of the physical functions they absorbed larger quantities of the poisonous 
substances. 

Finally, concerning cases in which the poisonous quality of meat 
obtained its virulence only on post mortem, this becomes readily com- 
prehensive by the above-mentioned observations of Basenau, Poels, and 
Dliont, as well as by the fact that the bac. enteritidis occurs quite exten- 
sively distributed in putrefying organic material and also in many car- 
casses (Gartner). 

According to recent observations, cases of poisoning resulting from 
the ingestion of fish-meat and oysters (Netter, Herdmann and Boyce. 
Vivaldi and Rodella), as well as affections of so-called paratyphus of 
unknown cause, belong to the sphere of action of the bacillus enteritidis. 

Etiology of the Toxicity of Meat. — The bacteria of the group of 
bacillus enteritidis, which produce the poisonous qualities of the meat, 
possess, according to van Ermengem, the following characteristics : 

1. Short bacteria, very frequently of ovoid form (coccus bacilli) of 0,2 to 0,4 yui 
usually arranged in pairs ; sometimes they stain irregularly, especially in somewhat 
older gelatin cultures, as well as in peritoneal and pleuritic exudates, in the liver, 
etc., so that they resemble the bacteria of hemorrhagic septicaemia. 

2. They do not stain by Gram's method. 

3. They are quite motile similar to the typhoid bacillus, and possess peripherally 
arranged flagella, 4-8 jx long, but sometimes they are more than 10-12 ^ long. 

4. The superficial colonies on gelatin are quite polymorphous; frequently they 
are only slightly distingxiished from those of the bact. coli, and while they are in 
general more transparent, they are less lobate, and show usually a transparent 
border. 

5. They do not form indol, or at the most, they produce it only in extremely 
small quantities. 

6. They do not coagulate milk; but after about 10 days reduce somewhat its 
opaqueness. In fact it renders the milk slightly transparent, which at the same 
time takes up a yellowish color similar to coffee and milk and becomes markedly 
alkaline. 

7. They always ferment dextrose with abundant gas formation, and also gen- 
erally decompose the other kinds of sugars — lactose, galactose, maltose, cane- 
sugar, etc. — and even glycerin with gas formation, excepting certain varieties of the 
organisms, as for instance, those described by Fischer and Durham, which do not 
affect lactose. 



Meat Poisoning as a Result of Bac. Enteritidis 361 

8. They cloud bouillon very quickly, and a membrane forms on the surface 
which tears readily, but no distinguishing odor is communicated to the nutritive 
media. 

9. On potatoes the growth is frequently barely visible; in other cases it is 
quite thick, dirty yellowish, or of a brownish development. 

10. The quite luxuriant growth in Petruschki's litmus milk effects no change 
in the color, nor is there an acid production. 

11. A more or less pronounced formation of fluorescence takes place in the 
neutral-red agar of Rothberger with a 0,3 per cent, addition of dextrose, the nutri- 
tive substance is discolored after 18 to 24 hours, and gas is produced. 

12. On the nutritive media of Drigalski-Conradi, bluish colonies develop after 
16 to 18 hours, which are somewhat larger and less transparent than those of the 
typhoid bacilli. 

These micro-organisms further distinguish themselves from the more or less 
Tfelated species with which they might at first be confused; or, for instance, with 
certain varieties of the bacterium coli, by their great virulence and by their char- 
acteristic production of toxins, which are resistant to high temperatures. These 
poisons penetrate the nutritive media and may be demonstrated in the filtrate 
which is free of the organisms. 

The mode of infection by the bacilhis enteritidis and its passage into 
food animals cannot be taken up here. It should be considered, how- 
ever, that a pollution of the latter may occur through contact with the 
bacilli without the presence of an infection in the anirnal itself; the 
latter, however, does occur in rare instances. 

The paratyphus bacilli may be left unconsidered here 

That the bacillus suipestifer, notwithstanding its relation to the paratyphus 
bacilli and to the enteritidis group, does not belong to the meat-poisoning bacteria 
has been established by C. Joest. 

De Nobele convinced himself, according to van Ermengem, of the fact that the 
muscular juice of affected animals, which are infected with micro-organisms of the 
bacillus enteritidis group, possesses a pronounced quality of agglutination for the 
latter. According to this investigation, it would be sufficient to test the muscle 
plasma in quite strong concentrations (i: 10 to 1:20) with each of the representa- 
tives of the two groups of micro-organisms which he established. As the expressed 
muscular juice of healthy animals does not agglutinate the micro-organisms in 
question even in a concentration of 1:1, it would thus be possible by this test to 
obtain a definite result within two hours. It would be necessary to resort to the 
cultural method only in case the agglutination gave negative results. It would be 
p.dvantageous to keep the meat to be examined for 24 hours after slaughter at a 
temperature of 18 to 20 C, and to make the culture inoculations only after that 
time. By this procedure a marked increase of the micro-organisms is obtained, 
which are not frequently numerous immediately after slaughter. On the other 
hand, through this method the results of examination are unfortunately much 
longer delayed. 

In scientific or forensic examinations regarding the poisonous qualities of meat, 
the sero-diagnosis possesses a great importance for the distinction of the suspicious 
bacilli found thereby. 

Also for the diagnosis of poisoning in men ^and animals by meat, the agglu- 
tination test of the blood of affected individuals may be of value. 



362 Chap. X. Meat Poisonings 

Occurrences of Poisonings. — The first critical enumeration of cases 
which occurred before 1880 is found in the work of Siedamgrotzky. The 
review of similar poisonings, by Bollinger, in the same year, gives an 
account of 17 endemic poisonings by meat, which probably belonged 
principally to the enteritidis group, affecting almost 2,400 cases, with 35 
deaths. The statistics of Ostertag, taken up in his Handbook, increases 
the number of poisonings by meat to 90 outbreaks, which he obtained 
from the literature of the last 23 years. These 90 outbreaks involve more 
than 4,000 individual cases, of which the largest portion falls to Germany. 

For the recognition of poisonous qualities in meat, the examination 
could be carried out for bacteria by the method recommended by B'asenau 
(page 136) ; however, such a bacteriological examination could be used 
in practice only in emergencies. 

This would also be the case with the method of examination sug- 
gested by De Nobele. Stress should be laid on the prevention of poison- 
ings by meat through a conscientious examination of food animals before 
and after slaughter by the veterinary inspector. As has been already 
emphasized, the post-mortem examination should be especially carried 
out with the greatest care and conscientiousness in emergency slaughter, 
and should be executed with the application of all technical methods 
available (page 134). 

Although there will be certain doubtful cases for the practiced expert 
in which the rendering of a decision will not be easy, at the same time 
it will be possible for him, by considering and valuing all clinical and 
pathological characteristics of septic and pyemic affections, to prevent the 
occurrences of poisonings by meat almost completely ; at any rate to 
the greatest extent possible, according to^ the present standpoint of scien- 
tific meat inspection. 

2, Meat Poisoning with Bacterium Coli, Proteus Species, etc, 

This concerns a poisonous action of meat, which originates from 
entirely healthy animals being infested sometimes only after slaughter, 
with pathogenic or saprophytic organisms which produce toxins. Some- 
times such disease-producing meat is visibly changed, decomposed, or 
affected with slight putrefaction by the action of bacteria, but in numerous 
cases there are absolutely no changes noticeable in poisonous meat. The 
latter was principally observed in so-called chopped-meat poisonings (see 
below). 

Nature and Manifestations. — The cases belonging here represent 
principally pure intoxicants by the toxins produced by microorganisms 
in the injurious meat. This speaks especially for the early manifestations 
of the disease which soon appear after ingestion of the meat (3 to 4 



Meat Poisonings with Bacterium Coli, Proteus Species, etc. 363 

hours). Of course intoxication may be combined with a pathogenic 
infection where severe symptoms of poisoning and a protracted course of 
the sickness develop after some time has elapsed as a result of the increase 
of injurious microorganisms in the digestive apparatus of affected 
persons. The manifestations of these meat poisonings vary considerably, 
and are similar to those which are observed in the genuine poisonings by 
meat. Nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, giddiness, headache, dizziness, and 
debility occur, which may increase to faintings; while in children and 
weak persons, cholera-like symptoms have also been observed. Recovery 
is the rule ; but deaths have been also observed, especially in children. As 
a cause for this group of meat poisonings, according to van Ermengem, 
two saprophytes come into consideration, both of which are common 
inhabitants of putrid animal substances, namely: the bacterium coli, and 
the bacillus proteus with its numerous varieties — for instance, proteus 
radians (Gutzeit) ; also the microbe named by Hamburger as bacillus 
cellulaeformis, which is somewhat distinguished from the bact. coli, and 
appears of etiological importance. As these bacteria play a secondary 
part in the putrefaction of meat, the injurious properties of such meat 
m.ay be traced to them. 

The injurious action of these bacteria consists principally as has 
already been mentioned, in the formation of toxins which are not 
destroyed by ordinary boiling and roasting of meat, although they are 
somewhat attenuated. According to experience, it is true, boiled and 
roasted meat foods have produced a great number of poisonings ; but the 
latter were mostly milder than when the meat was consumed without 
previous heating, or was insufficiently boiled or roasted. 

The intensity of the decomposition of meat does not stand at all in 
relation to its presumed poisonous character ; and in this, experience has 
also taught that frequently only slight manifestations of decomposition of 
meat were connected with severe poisonous actions. 

A statistical arrangement of poisonings is not possible, since the 
affections belonging here, with the exception of the chopped-meat poison- 
ings do not take, as a rule, an epidemic character, but are limited to sepa- 
rate cases, the scientific investigations of which are made very difficult 
for obvious reasons. 

The recognition of the poisonous quality of the meat belonging to 
this group is practically impossible, as has been mentioned, since objective 
changes may be entirely absent, notwithstanding the presence of the 
poison. In decomposing meat the signs described on page 328 are suffi- 
cient to demonstrate putrefaction of the meat and to judge the same, 
according to the views given on page 330. 

For the prevention of this group of meat poisonings it is necessary 
to exclude all such meat from traffic in which putrefaction had been dem- 



364 Chap. X. Meat Poisonings 

onstrated, or with mainfestations of decomposition. Otherwise these 
meat poisonings must be prevented by the care of the housewife or 
servants in selecting for use only unobjectionable meat. When suspected 
meat cannot be unconditionally excluded from human consumption, it 
should be utilized only after a complete boiling or thorough roasting. 

The so-called chopped-meat poisonings belonging here, have been observed 
only in the ■warmer seasons. This alone sufficiently speaks for the fact that it 
depends upon a pollution of the easily decomposing meat wfith bacteria (bacterial 
content, see page 71), which grow well on the meat and form toxins. 

Chopped-meat poisonings of larger extent were almost exclusively observed 
at such places where a large amount of slightly smoked sausage or raw meat, or 
partially roasted meat had been consumed. Recently, epidemic chopped-meat poi- 
sonings were observed in Chemnitz, Dresden, Gerbstadt, Gera, Halle a. S., Siilken, 
Velbert, Hamburg, Berlin, and elsewhere, affecting over 600 people, with several 
deaths. However, isolated cares occur every summer. 

Lately chopped-meat poisonings have been observed, in which paratyphus bacilli 
were supposed to be the cause. These should not belong to the chopped-meat poi- 
sonings proper, but to the meat poisonings of the enteritidis group. 

To prevent poisoning by chopped meat it is advisable not to keep it at 
a summer temperature for any length of time ; wherefore the prohibition 
of the use of preserving substances should be of assistance ; and the meat 
should not be consumed in a raw state or insufificiently prepared. 

3, Botulismus 

As botulismus (allantiasis, sausage poisoning) are designated certain 
cases of affections in man produced by the consumption of meat, which 
are specially characterized on account of the symptoms deviating from 
both of the previous groups. The name "sausage-poisoning" originates 
from the fact that the first critically observed cases, by Justmus Kerner, 
in the year 1820 were connected with the ingestion of injurious sausages ; 
and also later many severe affections of this kind could be traced to this 
source. 

Here, too, belong most of the poisonings known as ichthyosismus and 
mytilismus, which are produced by the meat of fish, crustaceans, and 
other shell-food. 

Nature and Manifestations. — Botulismus consists in an intoxication 
of the human organism by poisonous substances, which are produced by 
the bacillus botulinus, named and discovered by van Ermengem. 

The symptoms, especially characteristic, are disturbances in the 
sight; paralysis in the region of the optics, oculomotorius (mydriasis), 
trochlearis abducens facialis (ptosis), as well as of the lachrymalis and 
trigeminus nerves ; they may occur singly or in association. Striking 
manifestations originating in the digestive apparatus are frequently absent 



Botulismus 365 

or only slightly pronounced and passing. On the other hand there exists 
a persistent constipation, retention of urine, and marked debility. 

Fever as well as disturbances in consciousness and sensibility is 
absent. The symptoms of the disease appear 24 to 36 hours after the 
meal ; occasionally, however, even later. Regarding the severity and 
duration of the disease, there exist great differences. The mortality is 
about 25 to 30 per cent., much higher than in meat poisonings. 

Causes. — As is already indicated by the name, botulismus is chiefly 
caused by the ingestion of sausages which are infested with the bacillus 
botulinus, producing toxins. But as this organism thrives also in other 
meat foods (see below), the most varied meat food may enter into the 
question in sausage poisoning. 

* Of those sausages which frequently cause poisoning are first of all 
to be mentioned liver — as well as other visceral and jelly sausages, which 
in certain localities are quite voluminously prepared, and by smoking are 
made into cured sausages. The sausage content itself does not resist 
putrefaction to any extent, and in the large sizes in which sausages mostly 
appear when they are prepared on occasions of so-called home slaughter 
for domestic consumption, it may readily occur that on account of insuffi- 
cient boiling the bacteria contained within the sausages remain unde- 
stroyed. Also the bactericidal action of the smoking is only slight in very 
large sausages, on account of the difficulty of penetrating them ; and espe- 
cially will it fail when the smoking is carried on for only a few hours 
(during the day), which occurs frequently in the households of the 
country. 

Proof that the poisonous effect of sausages can be traced to bacteria 
lies in the fact that other meat foods in the state of putrefaction also 
produced entirely analagous affections to those of sausage poisoning. 
Thus poisonings were observed in partially decomposed hams, in slightly 
putrid meat, and in their broth ; also in fermenting pickled meat ; through 
the ingestion of roasted geese, which were allowed to hang undrawn for 
a day in the cellar ; through old roast-mutton gravy ; sausage meat ; liver ; 
liver-pate ; spoiled canned preserves, etc. At the same time the respective 
foods did not in the least display any striking changes, and showed prin- 
cipally only musty, slightly rancid, sourish odors and taste. 

The bacillus botulinus has some similarity to the edema bacillus ; it is 4-6 ^ 
long and 0.9-1.2 ^ broad; straight with slightly rounded ends. It is an anaerobe; 
forms oval spores at the end of the rod ; grows luxuriantly on alkaline media at 
18 to 25° C, and develops a sharp odor of butyric acid. At higher degrees of tem- 
perature (35-37°) it grows only sparingly and without the formation of toxins. 
By heating half an hour at 80° C. the bacillus becomes inactive the same as when 
exposed for i hour at 10° C. As the bacillus does not grow on pork containing 
6 per cent, salt, well pickled meat foods which always contain a larger quantity of 
salt should not be infected with it. But as pickling is frequently quickly and 



366 Chap. X. Meat Poisonings 

superficially accomplished, pickled and smoked products may contain botulinus bacilli 
and their toxins. 

Van Ermengem classifies the bacillus botulinus in a group of microorganisms 
newly established by himself, the toxigenic saprophites, which do not multiply in the 
living body, but act only through their toxins. The enormous poisoning action of 
the botulismus toxins appears evident, when it is considered that for instance 1-2 
drops of a gelatin culture, or o.ooi cm. of dextrose bouillon culture administered 
per OS to monkeys or guinea pigs, constitute a fatal dose in from 24 to 36 hours. 

Casiiistics. — Most of the sausage poisonings, both epidemic and 
endemic cases, which have occurred in Wiirttemberg, according to Oster- 
tag, can be accredited to the lack of intelHgence by which formerly certain 
kind of sausages, as Hver and blood sausages, were prepared. Also in 
Bavaria, Baden, and North Germany sausage poisonings have been 
observed, although less frequently; and single cases are reported in the 
literature from everywhere. 

For prevention of botulismus, the following statement prepared by 
van Ermengem, besides the instructions to the public on the proper prep- 
aration of sausages, is worthy of consideration : 

1. Preserved food substances, which are exposed to anaerobic bac- 
teria, must never be consumed in a raw state, but should be properly 
cooked. 

2. Preserved food substances which by a rancid or butyric acid- 
like odor arouse suspicion should be rightly excluded from consumption. 

3. For pickling, only such brine should be employed which contains 
at least 10 per cent, common salt, as the bacillus botulinus cannot multiply 
in this solution. 

From a therapeutic standpoint, the antitoxin serum prepared by Kempner for 
the treatment of botulismus, is worthy of consideration. 



XL History of Meat Hygiene 

Of the history of meat hygiene, and especially of meat inspection, 
which is inseparably connected with the history of the meat food of man 
in general, only a few brief remarks should be made here,^ which char- 
acterize its development in the main. 

There is no doubt that man at all times, at least as far as his appear- 
ance can be traced paleontologically, has consumed meat food. Especially 
for Europe, it can be considered as proven that the paleolithic inhabi- 
tants of caves had already utilized as their food the meat of various liv- 
ing animals and fish. Also the findings of later epochs leave no doubt as 
to the meat consumption of man, and this may with certainty be estab- 
lished from the oldest historical traditions. 

As the oldest facts in the history of meat inspection may be consid- 
ered, the food and edicts of the Egyptians who designated certain animals, 
first of all the hog, as unclean, and excluded their meat from the con- 
sumption of man. The Egyptian priests who held to this with great strict- 
ness may be therefore considered as the first representatives of a method 
of meat inspection. 

The Egyptian food laws, of which the prohibition of hog meat was 
besides accepted by all of the Semitic races of those times, were without 
a doubt prefigurative for the Mosaic food laws of the Israelites. Also 
with this race the priests were the judges of the meats, which is explained 
by their connection with the extensive religious animal offerings and the 
share of the priests in the meat of the sacrificed animal. The sacrificed 
animals, and in a broader sense all the food animals, must have been 
healthy and without a blemish. 

Otherwise, animals adapted for food were divided into clean (rumi- 
nants, domestic fowls, and birds which do not live on carcasses, as well 
as fish having fins and scales) and unclean (solipeds, hogs, etc.). The 
consumption of young animals was interdicted, and especially strict was 
the prohibition maintained against consuming fat and blood as well as 
meat of hogs. These edicts experienced amplifications from time to time, 
and were enlarged, especially during the so-called Talmudic period, which 
extended through the first century A. D., by specific instructions regard- 
ing the slaughter and examination of food animals (page 27). To the 
first belong especially the rulings for the "shacten" (page 24). 



1 For details see Ostertag's Handbuch der Fleischbeschau ; Baranski, Anlekung 
zur Vieh-und Fleischbeschau; Goltz, Geschichte der Fleischnahrung und Fleisch- 
nahrungsmittel. 

367 



368 Chap. XL History of Meat Hygiene 

Similar to the IsraeHtish and Egyptian food laws are those of the 
Mohammedans even of to-day. The latter considered both the hog and 
the dog as unclean, according to the Koran. 

In contrast to the views regarding the meat foods of the Semitic 
races, stand those of the old Greeks and Romans. Pork was not inter- 
dicted, but was rather greatly favored by the Romans, and the Greeks 
likewise favored the meat of young castrated dogs. On the other hand, 
the consumption of meat of lambs, which were not shorn, at one time was 
forbidden to the Athenians, and the Romans disdained the meat of goats 
as unhealthy. Police were located at the Athens market from the earliest 
times. In Rome, since 388, following the foundation of the city, two state 
Aedils provided for order and supervision of the stock and meat markets, 
where also an official inspection of meat was conducted. 

The salting of meat, which is mentioned by Homer, was known to 
the Romans, as well as the preparation of various kinds of sausages 
(botuli fry, incisia, slice circelli ring, temacina chopped sausages) and 
smoked products. Well-equipped abattoirs (lamense) and meat markets 
(macelli) existed, according to Ostertag, in old Rome. The beginning of 
the old Roman meat control has not, however, been further developed, for 
it ceased with the downfall of the western Roman Empire. 

From Northern Europe and the old Gallics and Germanians there 
are no traditions regarding a supervision of meat foods, or on any other 
special customs. Not until the spreading of Christianity were Old Testa- 
ment food laws inaugurated, which were strictly supervised by the 
church. The prohibition of the consumption of horse meat, issued by 
Apostle Bonifacius, under the direction of Pope Gregory HI, at the begin- 
ning of the eighth century can be considered as the first special food 
edict in old Germany, which, however, was not so much used from a 
hygienic standpoint as from consideration to the horse offerings of the 
heathen Germans. Later it was prescribed by Bonifacius, under the 
direction of Pope Zacharias, that bacon and pork should not be eaten 
otherwise than cooked. Also the consumption of diseased meat from 
dead and torn animals was prohibited. 

In later times the civil authorities of Germany gradually paid more 
attention to meat, as this formed the principal food of the people in the 
Middle Ages. With this the meat industry developed into a particular 
business, which was later highly respected. Although the oldest German 
records in which meat traffic received consideration have existed since the 
year 1120 (documents of the foundation of the city of Freiburg), butch- 
ers, however, are mentioned for the first time in 11 56, in the "lustitia civi- 
tatis Augsburg" as ''carnifices." With the further development of the 
trades, it was not only the individual control of the meat industry in rela- 
tion to the orderly traffic of meats which progressed more and more, but 



History of Meat Hygiene 369 

also the ecclesiastical and civil authorities concerned themselves about it. 
Thus a distinction between marketable and nonmarketable meat is found 
for tlie first time in a record which was imparted by Bishop Liitold in 
the year 1248 to the butchers' fraternity at Basel. 

Although the decrees issued in the thirteenth and fourteenth cen- 
turies relative to meat traffic were principally of a local significance for 
individual cities, they contain important meat-inspection regulations. Thus 
are especially mentioned the measles of hogs, the bloating of meat, imma- 
turity of calves, meat of emaciated and diseased animals, pearly disease, 
etc., and in the year 1276 compulsory slaughter as well as compulsory 
inspection and declaration of sick animals, was ordered for the public 
abattoir in Augsburg. 

* That state regulations were also found necessary in certain states 
becomes evident from a decree of the state of Mecklenburg for the year 
of 1572, according to which the butchers were to be controlled by the city 
bailiff and two competent persons. 

After the Thirty Years' War, only little remained of the former fra- 
ternal and official supervising regulations in the domain of meat traffic, 
and only toward the end of the seventeenth century and the beginning 
of the eighteenth did the administration again direct some attention to 
meat and the slaughter of food animals. Without regarding local regula- 
tions, the decrees which existed at these times for Mecklenburg, Han- 
nover, Braunschweig-Liineburg, and the electorate of Saxony, as well as 
the general decrees of Baden, are worthy of mention. Also prohibitions 
against importations of pickled and smoked meats were even then issued 
by states (Hannover, Saxony), and cities (Leipsic), doubtlessly for fear 
of rinderpest. To a large extent, this led to a decree in Baden in the 
year 1772, according to which the professional opinion of the district 
physician was required on cattle which were affected with an infectious 
disease ; and in other diseases that of the stock examiner was necessary 
regarding the fitness of meat for consumption, in order that meat, which 
at that time was very expensive, should not be unnecessarily withheld as 
human food. Even somewhat earlier, in the year 1761, the government 
of Bavaria prescribed a renewal of the inspection of food animals by offi- 
cial meat inspectors. At that time a change was also affected in the judg- 
ing of pearly disease. Until then it was accepted as identical with a 
venereal affection ; and, therefore, the meat of all such affected cattle was 
destroyed without further consideration. But after Graumann, in 1784, 
explained that the nodules of pearly disease were not injurious to human 
health, the meat and milk of cattle affected with this pearly disease were 
no longer considered as unfit for food. 

Until the end of the eighteenth century, little was known of a 
scientific system in food regulations ; they gradually appeared with the 

25 



370 Chap. XL History of Meat Hygiene 

establishment of veterinary schools, on a basis of the medical views of 
those clays. These, however, were not favorable to meat inspection, since 
the teachings on the injurious effects of meat in certain diseased animals 
led to the view that no danger threatened human health from consump- 
tion of meat of diseased animals. With this not only was a supervision 
of the meat trafific declared superfluous, but also the formerly recognized 
hygienic importance of the public abattoirs was ignored to such an extent 
that, in 1826, a Prussian ministerial script even (declared the introduction 
of compulsory slaughter on the part of the local authorities as inadmis- 
sible. As a result of this the number of public abattoirs in Prussia was 
not only not increased, but even already existing abattoirs were 
abandoned. 

Not quite so unfavorable were the meat-inspection conditions in 
South Germany, where in Baden and Kurpfaltz the institution of animal 
inspection was not discontinued, and in the year 1802 a Ministerial decree 
was issued in Wiirttemberg for the prevention of very frequent poisonings 
by sausage. Also in the kingdom of Bavaria was soon seen the necessity 
of recognized meat inspection, which was first expressed in a meat- 
inspection ordinance for Southern Bavaria October 21, 1836, and for 
Schwaben and Neuburg January 10, 1857. Further meat-inspection regu- 
lations followed for Wiirttemberg March 14, i860 ; Northern Bavaria June 
2, 1862, and Baden August 17, 1865. The further development of meat 
inspection, which in North Germany was based on the Prussian abattoir 
laws of March 18, 1868, belongs to modern times. Concerning the devel- 
opment of meat hygiene in other European states, handbooks on meat 
inspection must be referred to as well as special historical works. 

[The history of meat inspection in the United States is practically 
the history of the U. S. Bureau of Animal Industry. While there were 
forms of municipal meat inspection carried out in several cities previous 
to the organization of this Bureau, the inspection was not established on a 
scientific basis until the inauguration of the Federal meat-inspection 
service. The reasons for commencing this work were as follows : 

The foreign sales of the meat-packing industry from the first included 
numerous varieties of meats and meat products, and by 1879 ^^e export 
trade in American bacon alone, without mentioning other foodstuffs, had 
become well established, when the continental countries became alarmed, 
seemingly on account of the presence of trichina in American hog prod- 
ucts, and accordingly prohibitive measures against these meats were insti- 
tuted. Italy was the first to promulgate these restrictions, and by 1881 
Austria, Germany, and France had likewise prohibited the importation of 
American pork or its products. American cattle met a similar rebuff at 
the instance of Great Britain in 1882, when regulations, commonly called 
the "Slaughter Order," were instituted bv the Order-in-Council of the 



History of Meat Hygiene 371 

Board of Agriculture, which compelled American cattle to be slaughtered 
at the port of entry. This prohibition of store cattle was caused, pre- 
sumably, by the presence of contagious pleuro-pneumonia among the cat- 
tle in a few of the Eastern States and Illinois, but notwithstanding this 
disease was effectually eradicated from this country in 1892, and since 
that time not a single case has been found either in cattle imported into 
Great Britain from the United States or among our herds, the restrictive 
measures continue to be enforced and the stigma constituting the assumed 
reason for this embargo remains. While it is plainly evident to any one 
who has given this subject the least consideration that these two alleged 
sanitary procedures of foreign governments were directly pointed at the 
meat and live-stock industry of this country, and although the vast falling- 
off in the value of our exports in these lines was to those variously 
engaged therein a hardship which continued for a decade, nevertheless, 
these interdictions must be considered as the potent and exciting factors 
in securing legislation for the scientific inspection of meats for foreign and 
domestic use, and incidentally in advancing the cause of veterinary science 
in the United States. 

The exclusion of American pork products finally became intolerable, 
and in order to relieve the situation and regain an export market for 
these foodstuffs, Congress passed the act of August 30, 1890, providing 
for the inspection of salted pork and bacon. It was but natural to pre- 
sume that with the passage of such a law providing for the certification of 
the pure and healthful character of American meats all restrictive meas- 
ures against our export trade would be revoked. However, this initial 
act was not sufficiently comprehensive, referring chiefly to the manner in 
which the products were packed and their appearance immediately before 
shipment, without taking into consideration at the time of slaughter of 
the animals producing these meats. For this reason the European coun- 
tries failed to abolish their restrictions against American pork. The relief 
expected in consequence of this act was not, therefore, realized, and on 
March 3, 1891, Congress, recognizing the importance of protecting and 
fostering this export industry, the value of which had reached the sum 
of $104,660,000, in 1881, and of acquiring and maintaining a pure and 
wholesome meat supply for our own people, passed a more effective act. 
This legislation authorized the issuance of regulations providing for the 
ante-mortem and post-mortem examination of all cattle, sheep and hogs 
intended for export and interstate commerce, especially providing for post- 
mortem inspection of cattle the meat of which is designated for export ; for 
a microscopic examination of all hogs for export in order that certificates 
could be issued setting forth their freedom from trichinosis ; the condem- 
nation of all diseased animals"; the marking or stamping of all inspected 
carcasses and the labeling of food products made from such carcasses 
intended for export or interstate traffic. 



372 ^ Chap. XI. History of Meat Hygiene 

The work connected with the endorsement of this act was placed 
under the care of the Bureau of Animal Industry, which had been estab- 
lished in 1884, for the purpose of collecting information concerning the 
nature, cause, treatment, and prevention of diseases of animals and the 
publication of the best measures for the prevention and eradication of 
such diseases. These increased duties rendered it desirable that the vari- 
ous lines of work be divided, and accordingly, on April i, 1891, the 
Bureau was organized into several divisions, one of which was designated 
the Meat Inspection Division, and, as its name implies, had, among other 
duties, special supervision of the inspection of meats for export and inter- 
state commerce. Regulations were immediately adopted for the purpose 
of carrying into effect this act of Congress'. A system of inspection was 
devised, a force of veterinarians and their assistants organized, and the 
inspection of meats inaugurated within ten weeks from the passage of the 
act, or on May 12, 1891, at the abattoir of Eastman & Co., of New York 
City. Other abattoirs made application for inspection, and by the end of 
the first complete fiscal year, 1892, inspection had been granted to twenty- 
eight abattoirs in twelve different cities. 

It will thus be observed that Federal meat inspection has only a very 
recent history, but one of which our people and our profession can justly 
be proud. 

The microscopic examination of pork for trichina was first estab- 
lished in Chicago, June 22, 1891, and likewise started in other cities before 
the end of that year. At first there was some hesitancy and skepticism 
among the packers as to the practical application of this microscopic 
examination without seriously retarding the business of the firms and 
causing vexatious and unnecessary delays, but all doubts were shortly 
dispelled by the satisfactory performance of the work, and the problem 
was efficiently solved by the persistence and skill of the Chief of the 
Bureau of Animal Industry and the growing perception and ripening- 
knowledge of his assistants. As a direct result of these microscopic 
examinations of pork products which were subjected to the keenest 
scrutiny of the attaches of European countries and favorably reported 
upon by them, the decree of September 3, 1891, was made by the German 
government after the Saratoga Convention which readmitted American 
pork that was officially certified as having been microscopically examined 
before shipment from the United States. 

Subsequently similar interdictions were removed by Italy, France, 
Denmark, and Austria, and in consequence of this reestablished confi- 
dence relative to the healthfulness and purity of the pork products of 
this country the export trade began at once to show decided and gratify- 
ing increase and to gradually expand and regain its former importance 
and value. 



History of Meat Hygiene 373 

The beneficial and desirable results that would necessarily accrue 
in conseq'uence of haying the supervision and inspection of the Govern- 
ment meat inspectors to certify to the purity and soundness of the 
products of their abattoirs, soon appealed to and was quickly acted upon 
not only by the packers who sought to compete in foreign markets, but 
those doing strictly a local and interstate business. The proprietors of 
those abattoirs desiring inspection for their meat products are required 
to make written application to the Secretary of Agriculture, stating the 
kind and number of animals slaughtered, and the destination of the 
products thereof, and to agree to such supervision of their business as 
may be demanded by the regulations of the Bureau. On conforming to 
such requirements the packing house is given a serial number by which it 
and the products thereof are thereafter known, and an inspector is placed 
in charge of the plant and furnished with a sufficient number of veteri- 
nary inspectors and inspector assistants to carry out the required 
inspection. 

The extension of the work caused by the enforcement of the act of 
Congress cannot be fully appreciated or comprehended without a knowl- 
edge relative to the importance and magnitude of the subject The suc- 
cessful and speedy elaboration of many details which necessarily 
required much labor and consideration and the care and efficiency with 
which they were immediately enforced exceeded all expectations when the 
dif^ticulties and obstacles — the inherent perplexities of the question — 
were considered. Moreover, this inspection was an innovation in sanita- 
tion in this country, and was of necessity carried out principally by inex- 
perienced men who were chosen chiefly on the strength of their political 
influence rather than by the breadth of their veterinary knowledge. 

The next epoch in the history of meat inspection is marked by the 
placing of all employees of the Bureau into the classified service by Presi- 
• dential order. This took efifect July i, 1894, since which time all appoint- 
ments to the force have been made only after the applicant has passed a 
rigid and highly satisfactorily examination. By this means only the 
intelligent, competent and superior candidates are chosen from the eligible 
list by certification from the U. S. Civil Service Commission. Now that 
the merit system is in vogue, not only the personnel of the Bureau has 
been improved, as would be expected, but the harmony and discipline 
resulting therefrom is vastly better than is possible where political 
intrigue forms a basis of appointment, promotion and retention. The 
first requisite to be met by those aspiring to the position of veterinary 
inspector is to be a graduate of a recognized and reputable veterinary 
college, and then to pass a rigid examination that destroys the ambition of 
a large percentage of applicants. After successfully meeting these 
requirements and receiving an appointment, his future service depends 



374 Chap. XI. History of the Meat Hygiene 

entirely upon the personal equation, and would include the ability, integ- 
rity, and discretion with which his onerous and multiple duties are 
, performed. 

Previous to 1894 the inspection consisted principally in the examina- 
tion of beef for export and the microscopic examination of pork destined 
for continental Europe, but at this time, owing to an increased demand for 
official inspection of meats, a similar ante-mortem and post-mortem 
examination was extended to hogs as had already been in operation from 
the beginning with cattle. In the following year calves and sheep were 
Hkewise subjected to inspection both before' and after slaughter. As the 
inspection gradually increased and covered a large number of animals, 
it became more and more important to obtain sufficient authority from 
Congress to dispose of the condemned carcasses, as the original act failed 
to grant power for the proper disposal of such products. The danger of 
allowing condemned meats to remain undestroyed is palpable when taken 
into consideration with the limited authority of the Federal Government 
regarding the use of such carcasses within the State. That it was 
highly unsatisfactory to the Bureau, as well as to the health of our peo- 
ple, to permit the packer to have absolute control over the final dispo- 
sition of unwholesome meats, was readily appreciated, especially in view 
of the dearth of state and municipal sanitary authorities vested with the 
power for properly disposing of those products. Consequently Congress, 
by the enactment of March 2, 1895, granted full power to the Secretar\ 
of Agriculture to adopt such rules and regulations as would be necessary 
to prevent the use of condemned carcasses for export or interstate 
traffic, making it a misdemeanor punishable by a fine not exceeding $1,000 
or imprisonment, in the discretion of the court. The work was rapidly 
advancing as the inspectors became more thoroughly trained and expe- 
rienced. New problems and duties were taken up as fast as the previous 
ones had been elucidated and controlled, and the progress made was 
highly gratifying. In keeping with this policy of steady conservative 
progress, the service was extended in 1895 by new legislation to include 
the interstate cattle inspection, and by 1897 not only all the beef and the 
greater part of pork and other meat products exported to Europe, but a 
large amount of meat intended for interstate commerce was inspected in 
accordance with the law. 

Although the legislation of neither 1891 nor 1895 mentioned sanita- 
tion, the Department in February, 1906, issued a sanitary regulation 
demanding the installation of toilet rooms for the employees of the vari- 
ous packing houses and insisting on cleanliness in all official abattoirs. 
Considerable progress was being made along these lines when the agita- 
tion of 1906 drew attention to the unsatisfactory conditions relating prin- 
cipally to canned and prepared meats, the use of preservatives, and the 



History of Meat Hygiene 375 

insanitary condition and methods of the packing establishments, although 
the Department at that time had no. control over such matters under the 
law. These defects of the law under which inspection was being con- 
ducted, had been realized and unsuccessful efforts had been made by the 
Department to improve the efficaency of the service by new legislation 
and increased appropriations, but it required the agitation of a sensational 
press to direct public attention to the inadequacy and defects of the law, 
which finally resulted in the adoption of the meat-inspection act of June 
30, 1906/ 

This act provides that all cattle, sheep, goats, and hogs shall be sub- 
ject to ante-mortem examinations when the meat thereof is to be used 
in interstate or foreign commerce, and such animals as are rejected must 
he slaughtered subject to post-morten inspection. It further provides 
for the post-mortem inspection of all cattle, sheep, swine, and goats, the 
products of which are intended for interstate and foreign trade. Those 
found fit for human food are marked "U. S. Inspected and Passed," and 
those carcasses found diseased or otherwise unfit for food are marked 
"U. S. Inspected and Condemned/' and all such condemned meats are 
destroyed in the presence of a Government inspector. All meats which 
are marked "U. S. Inspected and Passed" may be reinspected at any 
subsequent time, and if it has become tainted, unclean, or otherwise unfit 
for food it must be destroyed. In order that the above slaughtering 
establishments will be under the supervision of the Government at ail 
times, it is provided that the employees of the Bureau of Animal Indus- 
try shall have access to all portions of the plant day and night, whether 
it is in operation or not. Furthermore, power is granted the Secretary 
of Agriculture to destroy all food products containing dyes, chemicals, 
or ingredients which render the meat unfit for food. And all food 
products handled in any official establishment must be under the super- 
vision of an inspector during their preparation for preserving in cans, tins, 
pots, or other receptacles. These containers shall then bear a label 
that the contents have been inspected and passed. Nor are these food 
products allowed to be sold under any false or deceptive name. The 
Government is also empowered to have experts in sanitation to make 
inspection of all establishments, and to prescribe regulations of sanitation 
to be maintained, and when the sanitary conditions are not satisfactory 
the meat of such an establishment cannot enter interstate commerce. 
This act further provides that on and after October i, 1906, no carrier 
shall transport or receive for transportation any carcasses, meat, or meat- 
food products which have not been inspected and marked "U. S. Inspected 
and Passed," and any person or firm violating any of its provisions may 
be punished by a fine not exceeding $10,000 or imprisonment not longer 



This law is reproduced on page 127. 



3/6 Chap. XI. History of Meat Hygiene 

than two years, or by both sucli fine and imprisonment. For the enforce- 
ment of this law a permanent yearly appropriation of $3,000,000 is made. 
When it is considered that heretofore the yearly appropriations for meat 
inspection have always been less than requested by the Secretary of Agri- 
culture, and that in the years of the largest' appropriations they averaged 
a little over $800,000, it will be readily appreciated that a great advance 
has been made, not only in securing a rational and eminently satisfactory 
law on meat inspection, but also an appropriation which will permit of 
its efficient and continued enforceipent. And it can no^ longer be said, as 
it has been stated in the past, that we are more particular in protecting the 
people of Europe than. our own citizens. 

Aleat inspection in Canada is only of recent origin. There was no 
government control maintained in Canada in connection with meat-food 
products until the necessity for such action was brought to the attention 
of the people through the meat-inspection agitation in the United States. 
Then the Parliamentary authorities passed a meat-inspection bill in Sep- 
tember, 1907, which provides for a competent meat-inspection service, 
not alone for the increasing export of meat and meat-food products, but 
likewise for the control of the meat supply destined for home consumption. 

Accordingly, in order to provide a sufficient number of well-trained 
veterinary inspectors for this work, arrangements were made through the 
Veterinary Director General for a special course of instruction in meat 
inspection in one of the veterinary colleges of the United States, located 
near a large packing center. Thus the Canadian veterinarians were 
admitted daily to the large abattoirs and were paired with the inspectors 
of the Bureau of Animal Industry in order that they should acquire a 
most valuable practical knowledge of the duties required by the Canadian 
government. At the same time a full course of lectures was given to the 
students on the scientific aspect of meat inspection. 

The requirements for the appointment as veterinary inspector in 
Canada are practically the same as in the United States. Graduates of 
recognized veterinary colleges are required to pass a special examination 
on veterinary branches. 

The regulations governing meat inspection in Canada follow the same 
lines as those in force at the present time in the United States They 
provide for an ante-mortem and post-mortem inspection of all food ani- 
mals slaughtered in an establishment where government inspection is 
maintained as well as strict sanitation of those establishments. The prin- 
ciples in the judgment of carcasses are also similar to those adopted in 
the United States meat-inspection regulations.] 



XIL Abattoirs and Stock Yards 



The supply of meat forms for all communities, especially for large 
cities, a factor of pronounced economic and hygienic importance. This 
meat supply is being obtained in more and more abundance from certain 
central places, in which the largest quantity of meat, the so-called dressed 
meat, is sold. Such central places are the public abattoirs (slaughter 
Jiouses), which at the same time form the principal and central points for 
ante-mortem and post-mortem inspection mentioned in this book. For a 
more accurate study of the questions and conditions to be considered in 
the building and equipment of public abattoirs, the reader is referred to 
special Hterature on that subject.^ 

As the larger abattoirs are frequently connected with stock yards, 
these stock yards must also be mentioned. 

1, Abattoirs 

By abattoirs are understood establishments which serve for slaughter 
of such animals the meat of which is utilized as food for human beings. 
Further, the meat is roughly prepared there for the market, is stored in the 
various departments, and frequently also the so-called offal is worked up 
or is preliminarily treated as well as removed, if further utilization can- 
not be found. As the use of the abattoir is available for every one, they 
are designated in general as public abattoirs. With this, as a rule, is 
usually associated compulsory slaughter or slaughtering in abattoirs. 
With the latter, the inhabitants of a locality are compelled to carry out 
the contemplated slaughter of animals of certain species only and exclu- 
sively in public abattoirs, provided accidental or emergency cases do not 
exceptionally require immediate emergency slaughter of an animal at any 
other place. With the introduction of compulsory slaughter further use 
of all private slaughtering places which may exist in the locality for 
slaughtering purposes is accordingly prohibited. 

The construction and use of public abattoirs is regulated by law in 
many German cities. 



1 Among others, Schwarz, Building Equipment and Operation of Public Abat- 
toirs and Stock Yards, Berlin, i8g8; Schwarz, Machine Technique for the Operation 
of Abattoirs, Berlin, 1901 ; Osthoff, Abattoirs and Stock Yards; newly adapted by 
Dr. M. Fischer, Professor of the University of Halle a. s., 2d. edition, Leipsic, 1903. 



3/8 Chap. XII. Abattoirs and Stock Yards 

The law applyhig to abattoirs of the kingdom of Saxony has the fol- 
lowing wording : 

Lazv Concerning the Public Abattoirs, of July ii, i8'j6 

1. In localities in which public abattoirs are present in sufficient numbers, or 
such that are to be established by local statutes, there may be prohibited — 

(a) The establishment of new private slaughtering places as well as 

(b) A further use of existing private slaughtering places. All such statutory 
provisions to be made effective, require the approval of the Minister of the Interior. 

2. Inasmuch as the owners of private slaughtering places are entitled to 
indemnities in cases of certain diseases, the latter should be granted by the 
community. 

3. The Department of the Interior is authorized to suspend in whole or in part 
the statutory provisions enacted in accordance with law if the provisions given 
in the introductory remarks are no longer present, and if the community does 
not remedy the existing deficiency inside of a given time; if such conditions apply 
to a cit}^ community with city regulations, a hearing should be given before the 
District Commissioners ; in all other cases, a hearing before the County Commis- 
sioners should be taken. 

A, Location of the Abattoir 

In selecting a location for an abattoir it should be considered that the 
building should — 

1. Be located outside the city, and there should be no indication of 
it being soon surrounded by other buildings. 

2. Easy of access from all points of the city by good roads. 

3. Be easily connected by a side track with the existing railroad line. 

4. Have underground drainage for the waste water, without com- 
ing in contact with the built-up section of the city, and executed in such a 
way that it should empty below the city into a water drain, or into a con- 
structed waste-water cleaning plant. 

5. Have a sufficient water supply to cover the great demand of 
wash water which is required in abattoirs. 

6. Be of such sufficient size that an extension of the plant at that 
location should be assured for at least 30 years. 

B, Entire Establishment 

Regarding the location of the various buildings and rooms of an 
abattoir, there are distinguished three systems in general : 

I. The German arrangement of the buildings (Fig. 155) aims to 
make the plant appear closed as much as possible. Therefore, the most 
important operating rooms are either united in a single building under 
one roof, or most of the buildings are connected by roofed connecting 



Entire Establishment 



379 



passages, in such a way that larger open courts are not present between 
the various buildings. 

The advantages of the German arrangement of buildings lie in the 
smaller requirement of space, lower buildings, and operating expenses ; 
good facilities for surveying and supervising, convenient connections of 
the working establishments, and consequently saving of time in slaughter 




^!iCl(l. 



Fig. 155. Ground plan of an abattoir (Tilsitj with German arrangement of the- 
buildings. 



and an easy control of the butcher helpers by the foremen, as well as 
protection against draught, rain, snow, and cold, which such a closed 
plant affords to a greater advantage than an open establishment. As a 
disadvantage of the German system stands out prominently the diffi- 
culty for extensions, the effect of which, however, may be avoided by cor- 
rect measuring for the requirements of space, and commodious arrange- 



Entire Establishment 



381 



ments of the principal operating rooms. On account of the latter condi- 
tions, the German arrangement of buildings is not adapted for abattoirs 
of larger cities ; while on the other hand, it possesses great advantages 
without a doubt for medium and small abattoirs, as compared with the 
French system ; and above all, it is also more suitable in climatic relations 
for most parts of Germany. 



Lageplan. StMtischer l/i£^-^nd :Schlachllwf zit.]Jresden. (Stadtbaurat HansEdwein.) 



nehhof 
Schlachlhof 
yerwallung. 
Sanildls- Schlachlhof. 
S Faa^ Pferde-Schlachthof 

Ubersldnderstallangen. 




Fig. 157. Ground plan of an abattoir and stock yards, in which the first is 
arranged in accordance with the combination system. 

2. In the French arrangement of buildings (Fig. 156), there are 
open courts or streets between the various buildings, the grouping of 
which is arranged according to their operation ; thus the closed appear- 
ance of the German system is absent. 

The advantages of the French system lie, above all, in the easy pos- 
sibility of extension of every part of the plant; its disadvantages are 
brought out by the advantages of the German arrangements. Large 



382 Chap. XII. Abattoirs and Stock Yards 

abattoir plants can be practically constructed only after the French sys- 
tem, or by the following combination system : 

The original characteristic slaughter-cell arrangement of the French system, 
into which every abattoir was divided, must now be considered as a condition that 
belongs to the past. 

3. As a combination system for abattoir plants (Fig. 157) is desig- 
nated a system of building which has been more and more adopted in the 
last few years, in which the principal operating buildings are arranged 
according to the French system, and connected by roofed passages or 
connecting halls. The latter, which are found between the various kill- 
ing houses on one side and the cooling house on the other, make possible 
not only the transportation of meat without exposure to the changes of 
weather, but they also serve as stands for the utensils of the butchers, 
for whom the roofing serves to an advantage, just the same as to the 
butchers, dealers, officials and other visitors to the abattoir, who frequent 
the corresponding buildings. Similarly roofed connecting passages are 
also established between the killing halls on one side and the tripe house 
and manure house on the other. 

The advantages of such building arrangements become apparent 
from the above description. Disadvantages may be present when the cor- 
responding buildings do not face the connecting passageway with their 
fronts, but border the same with long surfaces of wall, thereby afifecting 
slaughter halls, etc. 

Ill the central plant of a large abattoir which is connected with stock yards, the 
following principal parts should be considered : 

(a) Stock yards with special quarantine pens. 

(b) Abattoir with accessory buildings. 

(c) Official and plague abattoir. 

(d) Horse and dog abattoir. 

(e) Office building. 

(f) Living quarters. 

(g) Vaccine establishment (for preparing lymph against small-pox), 
(h) Railroad tracks and station for disposition of railroad cars. 

(i) -Provision for sewers and clearing plant for waste water. 

(k) Water-supplying plant. 

(1) Lighting plant. 

(m) Streets and places with roofed wagon-stands. 

C. Buildings and Rooms 

The required buildings and rooms of every abattoir with their pur- 
poses and principal equipments, are obtained from the following : 

I. In the killing houses, the animals are slaughtered, skinned or 
hair removed, eviscerated and inspected ; also frequently they remain 



Buildings and Rooms 383 

lliere hanging to cool out. While in small abattoirs, a single room may- 
serve for slaughtering all species of food animals, in medium-sized abat- 
toirs cattle and small stock are slaughtered together, while only hogs 
are butchered in a special room. In large abattoirs, special slaughtering 
rooms must be provided for cattle, small stock, and hogs. 

The slaughtering of horses requires an individual killing house, sep- 
arated from the others of the abattoir, in which the slaughtering of dogs 
may also be carried out. In the same way there must be provided a spe- 
cial killing house for the slaughter of sick animals. 

Regarding the general equipment of the abattoirs, the following 
requirements should be fulfilled : 

As much light as possible ; hard, impenetrable floors ; good drainage 
Tor the water used in washing, through open shallow gutters ; smooth 
walls which must be easily washed to a height of 2 meters from the floor ; 
a plentiful supply of cold and hot water; abundant ventilation, and 
according to judgment also slight heating in winter. 

(a) In killing houses for large stock windlasses are found particu- 
larly necessary for hoisting both cattle and horses. These winches are 
termed stationary when the slaughtered animal is left to hang on them 
until cool, and movable when special equipments are provided for cool- 
ing the carcass and the windlass serves only for hoisting and transport- 
ing the slaughtered animal to the already mentioned hanging floor. The 
latter, as a rule, is connected with coolers by practically arranged rails 
and proper transporting equipment in such a way that the vmdivided 
hanging sides of large stock may be conveyed to the coolers without 
exertion. 

(b) Killing houses for small stock are characterized by hook-frames 
built into them for hanging thereon mostly skinned calves and sheep and 
their viscera. These animals are slaughtered on trestles. 

Lately there are also in use special slaughter trestles, which are 
fastened to the floor and may be raised in such a way that at the same 
time they also serve for hanging arrangements. Hook-frames are thus 
made superfluous. 

(c) The killing houses for hogs are distinguishable by the sticking 
and scalding rooms, as well as the dressing room. In the first are present 
the striking and sticking sheds ; also hot-water vats, in which the stuck 
hogs are scalded in order to facilitate an easier removal of the hair. Some- 
times the latter is also carried out on special tables in this room ; however, 
the scraping is frequently executed in the room in which the carcass is 
dressed. The latter contains hooks on frames or rails for hanging and 
eviscerating hogs after the hair has been removed ; also hanging arrange- 
ments and tables for the viscera and other parts. 



384 Chap. XII. Abattoirs ami Sh>ck ^'al■(ls 

I'\)r the oonvovanco of hos^s from the scaUhnj;- vat to tlio scraping- 
table and from licrc lo llic hanging- Hoor and chid room, very practical 
arrang-emcnts arc frc(|nonlly installed which save hnman strength, as 
ninch as possible. 

( )ne of (he latest devices belonging here, and which has attracted 
the attention of abattoir constrnctors to a great extent, is a patented 
glidingf-rail system, with traversable spreaders, constrncted by the firm of 
Kreiser and CO., in Kassel. 

In connection with hog--killing houses of large abattoirs, trichina- 
ins])ection rooms are nsnally established. 

2. The tri])e room ( gnt room ) is nsed for emi)lying and cleaning- of 
the gastro-intestinal canal. In small abattoirs there is only one common 
room ; in large ones, however, (here are separate trii)e rooms for every 
slaug-hter lionse. The tri])e rooms of callle slanghter honses are most 
always connected with a special mamn'c house for the reception of the 
contents of the stomachs. ( )therwise the trii)e rooms are snpplied with 
troug'hs for cleaning stomachs and intestines in warm anxl cold water, 
with vats for scalding certain jiarts, and with tables. 

3. The e(|ni])ment and o])eralion of the cooling rooms and coolers, 
which are to-day inseparable even in small abattoirs, have already been 
fnll\' described on page S5. 

4. .St.ables nmst be present for all species of food animals, as well 
as for horses and dranght dogs which are em])loyed in the indnstrial 
trahic of abattoirs. P'or the stabling of sick or suspicious stock, stables 
located apart from the others are e(|nip]ied, and they must also be used 
for stabling foreign food stock. 

With reg'ard to the eciuipment of stables, the omission of wood- 
work, mipercolating- and easily cleaned Moors and wall surfaces, g-ood 
lig-hting and ventilation, sufticient water su])]ily, and g-ood drainag^e for 
(he tdth)' water are indispensable. 

5. The manure honses which have given the best satisfaction for 
the disposition of manure are so equipped that they jiossess elevated 
platforms with opening's through which the manure is poin-ed or thrown 
into closed iron manure cars, which are switched there. I'^specially good 
ventilation and the (piickest method for carrying off the manure are 
necessary above everything. In large abattoirs practical devices have 
lately been established for the disjiosition of the mamu"c and for its further 
utilization. 

(\ Talhnc I'dc/orirs for iKriidrriiii; I'ol and T<ill(nc Ohiaincd in flic 
.1 hat loir. — niood-utili/.ing- ])lants, stri])peries, hide-salting establishments 
and hide-houses, and plants for the industrial utilization of condenuicd 
l)roducts are only found in larger abattoirs. /\n odorless working plant, 
which may vary greatly, should he re(|uired as absolutely necessary. 



]VI;i,ii;ij_;ciiiciil nf I lie AI>;illoirs 385 

7. Doilcr and cii^iiu: liouscs arc rc:(|iiirc:(l in oifU-r Id oM.iin :,U:aiii 
for heating and operating purposes, as well as lor workinj,; ilic ingines 
for operating the refrigerating machines, electric dynamo machines, 
jMiiiips, etc. 'I'lic l;iUcr (7)iiv<7 llie water into special tanks placetl at some 
(■Icvalinii ill oidiT lo ohi.iiii ;i ready How for the water supply. 

^. As sanitary instil ntions or police slaughterhouses (official, 
plague slaughterhouses) are designated the estahlisliments which are 
present in merlium-si/ed and larger abattoirs, for the separated stabling, 
slaught(;ring, sanitary and velerin;iry jioliee dispositi^m of diseased food- 
stock and those suspected of di'ca.e or plagues. They represent to a 
certain extent a small ah.ilioii williin a larger establishment, and arc 
correspondingly ((piipp*-'! '1 lieic arc .-if.o pl.Kcd, ;i/, ;i inlc, the eon- 
trivance'. for liarniK-ss disposition of i(tii(|(iMii((| mc'it ' p-'J-',^' '7") 
rcjuiri-d by the ni<!at-ins])eclion regulation,, lot icndii inj. .-uid steaming 
nie.'il (pa;.M- \(>\), for reiidriiiiM |';il (page \<><)), piekliii^; ' j'-T,'' ''"))' 
and for eiiring iiie;il, as well as the ;ip|);iial ns ;ind pl;inls incnlioiied 
under (). 

(). Ill llie ohi( i;il building are (|ii;ii Ids for I lie f.;eii(r.il ;iiid liiiaucial 
managenieiil of the abattoii ;ind for llx' meat and trichina inspection 
should they be not located in the sl;iMfdil<ihouses proiter; wai'drobcs for 
the foremen and assistants; the restaurant, if there he no special restau- 
rant huilding, and living (|uarters for ofheials. 

Also an inspection office for meal brought from the outside, as well 
as a I'Viebank salesrO(<ni, may be loe;ilcd in Ihc office building, if they 
are not placed in other buildings, 

10, Special doorkeepers a)id scale houses ;ire only necessary in 
medium sized and large abattoirs. 

11. Waste water (deaiiiug j)lanls, for wlii< li die mosi vaii'd systems 
are in existence, must be |)rovided for ;ill abattoirs in view oi the great 
pollulion of the waste water of abatloirs. '1 heir const iik lion naturally 
i principally midergronnd. 

D, Managemtrnt of the Abattoirs 

The experience of many years has demonslraled ih.ii ihc iii.in;i.tMin<nl 
of abattoirs must be positively (']'fcr\c>\ hy the eoinniiinily ilscif; il is 
desired to avoid .ill mimcrons iiiipleas;iiit conditions ;ind iin idi-nls, which 
were observed in the management of such establishmenls at first, by 
receiving hearty cooperatirjii for the ])id)lic welfare- from private individ 
uals, c<n'|)oratioiis, and butchers' cooperative associations. I'rfjper veleii 
narians liave always f^iven the best satisfaction as managers of abatloirs. 

The same state- of affairs exists in the erection of public abatloirs, 
which are to be managed entirely l)y local .idministration. Aside from 
the noteworthy fad lli;il in public ahafloirs the pulice dgfhts oi the com 
26 



3^^^ Chap. XII. Abattoirs and Stock Yards 

mmiity arc exercised to a very great extent, it should be especially con- 
sulered that the i)iiblic abattoirs are not only very good investments of 
capital, but that they are continually ]n-oving to be a profitable source of 
income. J 'Ait they should principally benefit the community, and not the 
])rivate individual or corporation. 

When an abattoir is not owned by the municipality, nor managed by 
it, it should be at least required that the experts assigned to the execution 
oi the ante-mortem and post-morten inspection, as well as the general 
supervision of employees, should be permanently appointed city officials. 

Relative to the supervision and veterinary police work in abattoir.^, 
w hai is saiil ou page 389 will apply. 

2. Stock Yards 

Stock yards \\hicli serve for conunercial traffic in food animals in 
specially constructed buildings are appropriately equipped. They are 
nn important necessity for all cities which cannot supply their demand 
for food animals from the immetliate surrounding country, but are obliged 
to draw their demand from larger stock-raising localities. Specird 
favorably located stock yards, or such which are well attended, develop 
frequently to be central points for animal conuuerce of large territories ; 
and conse([uently from such stock yards a considerable amount of ship- 
l)ing takes place. 

As a rule, a large proportion of the stock sold at the stock markets 
is slaughteretl at the same place. Therefore it is practical to connect 
the stock yards directly with the abattoirs, which appears especially of 
great advantage when it becomes necessary, on acccnmt of an outbreak 
of contagion in the stock markets., for the immediate slaughter of 
affected stock. 

A, Locatioa of Stock Yards 

In the selection of a location for the erecticMi of stock yards, the 
same points of view should be followed as those in the establishment of 
an abattoir. However, an immediate track connection with a railroad 
is a natural necessity, and for the above-mentioned reasons the advantage 
of its connection witb aii abattoir becomes api)arent. Accordingly, stock 
yards and abattoirs represent mostly a complete establishment both of 
which are dependent upon each other. A distinct separation of the 
abattoir from the stock yard in such a way that the one may be closed 
against the other is indispensable from a veterinary police standpoints 
and also on the grounds of its technical management. 

There are no special systems for grouping stock yard buildings. 
This is rather influenced by the location of the various buildings of the 
abattoir, and especially by the practical points of view. As single parts 



J'>uil(Iin^^s and I'laiils 387 

of the stock yards there arc separated for special piiriK)ses : Yards for 
animals left over frrMn the market ; (|uarantine and ])la}^ue yards, which, 
however,' in smaller stock yards arc mostly represented only as isolated 
stables. 

B, Buildings and Pldnts 

The buildings and jjlants wliicli belong l(j a well-equipped stock 
yard will be briefly described. Regarding their equipment in general, 
it may be remarked that where in the stock yards a iniblic trafific is main- 
tained, <^)r f<jod animals are brought, they shmild in the first i)lace satisfy 
the veterinary police and sanitary requirements in relation to cleanliness 
^d possibility for disinfection fharrl, impenetrable floors; smooth, easily 
washed walls; omission oi wood-work; good arrangements for ventila- 
tion; good light; abundant water sup];ly, and good drainage for filthy 
water). 

T. Stock which is trans])orted to the stock yards is put up for sale 
in special market halls, which as a rule fjccurs only on certain market 
days. Whether a special hall is jjrovidcd for every .species of food ani- 
mal depends on the size of the str)ck yards anrl the existing trade activity. 

At s(jme places calves are also put up for sale in the market hall used 
for cattle, while in others they are sheltered in the market hall used for 
hogs; and in still other st'jck yards there exi.sts special small-stock 
market halls for calves. 

Regarding the equipment <^f these market halls, railings should be 
provided in those used for cattle for tying the animals; and in the halls 
for .smaller .stock divisions into smaller and larger pens are required for 
placing the animals, lujuipment for feeding stock in the market halls 
(mangers, troughs, racks) is not necessary in case there is ample stable 
roo)7i present, in which stabling and feeding may take place before and 
after market. 

2. Sjjecial vahie should be placed, from the stai)dpi-;int of veterinary 
police, on good and suflficient stables. J lowever, the construction of large 
attached .stable rooms should be omitterl and small stable divisions should 
be favored. 

Special stables for horses are rentiircd for the horses emj^loyerl in 
the business of the stock yards. The stable loft serves, as a rule, as a 
storage room for feed and straw. 

3. An exchange building with restain-ant is only necessary in large 
stock yards. In this building offices and business rooms are also provided 
for traders, st<;ck comnu'ssion men, animal insurance companies, stock 
yard banks, etc. 



388 Chap XII. Abattoirs and Stock Yards 

4. A special office building for the officials and the management of 
the abattoir is necessary in those instances where the required rooms can- 
not be obtained in the other buildings (exchange halls, stables). 

5. The location of railroad platforms for loading and unloading 
stock is influenced on the one hand by track connections, but on the other 
hand the traffic with market stock is considerably facilitated by the suita- 
ble location of the stables to the platform. 

A special platform, or a separated part of the general platform, must 
be provided for the traffic of quarantined stock or animals infected with 
a contagious disease. 

On the platforms are holding and counting pens necessary for tem- 
porary c|uarantine of the stock, which should serve also for veterinary 
police purposes. 

Small platforms for loading stock into vehicles are suitably erected 
at various practical places in the stock yards. 

6. A dung yard must be provided when the stable manure is not 
immediately loaded into cars from special manure houses (page 384). 
Lately it is aimed however to compound the manure, by which method 
the vegetable and animal organisms which produce disease are rendered 
harmless through a development of self-heating manures as a conse- 
quence of the process. 

7. Equipment for washing hogs (wash pens, vats) and for the 
preparation of scalded feed and gruels (gruel kitchens), are usually 
established in connection with the respective stables. 

8. The water supply (cold and warm water) of the stock yard is 
obtained, as a rule, from the corresponding plant of the abattoir. 

9. A disinfection plant for railroad cars, with necessary tracks, 
steam and hot-water boilers, hydrants, etc., are found only in larger 
stock yards. 

10. The above-mentioned part of the stock yard used for animals 
left over from the market is indispensable for large stock yards at a time 
of danger from plague. It represents a closed portion of the stock yard 
with stables for all species of animals which were not sold, for the time 
being, on the market. 

11. The quarantine or closed yards are somewhat similar to those 
previously mentioned, and are used for the accommodation of market 
stock from foreign countries which is not allowed to come in contact with 
native stock. 

It is more correct to connect the quarantine yards directly with the 
abattoir, or to provide an equipment in the yards for slaughtering animals 
placed in the quarantine pens. 

12. The plague yards, as a rule, connect with the sanitary estab- 
lishment mentioned on page 385, in order that the infected stock may 
be slaug-htered there. 



Management of Stock Yards 389 



C, Management of Stock yards 

The management of stock yards can be conducted in the same man- 
ner as has been described on page 385, concerning the management of 
abattoirs. 

Veterinary supervision of the stock yards, as a rule, devolves upon 
the competent state official veterinarians, if special state veterinarians are 
not employed for this purpose ; or the director of the stock yards is author- 
ized by the government to maintain this supervision, assigning an official 
veterinarian to attend to the duties. 



Index 



Page 

Abattoirs and stockyards Zll 

Abattoirs, in Rome 368 

law concerning 378 

performance of meat inspection 

in 155 

public 2)17 

Abdominal cavity, lymph glands of. 43 

Abomasum, diffused lymphadenia. . 207 

diphtheritic inflammation 207 

^bscess 198 

hypophrenic 210 

metastatic 297 

Acarus mange 223 

Accidents, emergency slaughter in. 189 
Acetic acid, conserving with... 78,90 

Acidity of fat, degree of 336 

Actinobacillosis of cattle 276 

Actinomycosis 273 

Advanced pregnancy, animals in.. 186 
Age of slaughter of animals. . 16, 183 
Agglutination test for distinguishing 

meat 62 

in meat poisonings 361 

Aglossa pinguinalis 334 

Air sac mite 348 

Albumen 34 

Albumenoids of muscles 38 

Albumina TZ, ^,2,7, 339 

Albumose in meat peptone 92 

Aldehyde in fat 335 

Allantiasis 364 

Ambulatory ante-mortem and post- 
mortem inspection 156 

Ammonia in putrefaction of meat, 

test for 330 

Amphibias, pecularities of meat of. 61 

examination of 356 

Amyloid degeneration 196 

Anemia 190, 217 

Anatomy of the most important 

viscera 54 

Angiomatosis of the liver 208 

Animal flour I7S 

.^nhnal transportation, regulation 

on 10 

Ankylostomum radiatum 228 

Anoplocephala 229 

Ante-mortem and post-mortem in- 

.spection, ambulatory 156 

dues for 152 

extraordinary 156 

organization of 131 

performance of 155 

procedure of 137 

statistics of 151 

supervision of 152 



Pa«c 

Anthracosis of the lungs 214 

Anthrax 277 

Aphthous fever 285 

y^piosoma bigeminum 254 

Appert's conserving method 79 

Aroma bacteria 333 

Ascarides 228 

Ascaris capsularia 355 

Aspergillus 332 

Atrophy 194 

brown 199 

Aulodigestion of meat 327 

Autoinfection with measles 242 

Autointoxications . 322 

Autolysis of the muscles 327 

Azoturia 324 

Bacillary erysipelas 301 

Bacillus b(jtulinus 364,365 

bovisepticus 3^6 

ccllulaeformis 363 

cyanogcnus 332 

entcritidis, Gartner 328 

cause of meat poisoning 358 

gangraenae emphysematosae 311,328 

gastromycosis ovis 313 

nodulifacius bovis 209 

oedematis maligni 292, 328 

paraputrificus 328 

phosphorescens 332 

piscicidus agilis 356 

Ijrodigiosus 332 

proteus as cause of meat poison- 
ings 362 

putrificus 332 

renalis bovis 328 

suisepticus 304 

Bacon, definition of 33 

Bacterial contents of chopped meat. 71 

Bacteriemia 293 

Bacterium avicidum 34x8 

coli 328 

cause of meat poisonings.... 362 

cause of sepsis 294 

lymphaticum aerogenes 209 

]jestis astaci 356 

proteus 328, 329 

Bacteriological meat inspection 136 

Balbianidae 254 

Barbel cholera 353 

Barmenit 89 

Beef, peculiarities of meat 57 

difi^erentiated from horse meat.. 66 

Beef measles 243 

Bile, utilization of 35 

Billy-goats, odor of meat of 185 

391 



392 



Index 



Page 

Binding quality of meat ^2 

Binding substances in sausage.. 72, .33y 
Biological method for distinguisliing 

the various kinds of meats 62 

Blackleg 311 

parturient 292, 312 

Bladder worm 232, 239, 2-jO 

Blastomycosis of the muscles 203 

Bleeding 25 

indications of thorough 25 

incomplete 18S 

Blood 34 

chemical composition of 42 

Blood aspiration 214 

Blood poisoning, ichorous 293 

purulent 297 

Blood, quantity in slaughtered ani- 
mals 25 

Blood sausage 74 

Blood vessels 42 

Blood, watery condition of 218 

Bloody urine, enzootic 256 

Blow fly -t,2,2> 

Blue coloration of the meat 332 

of the udder 335 

Boars, odor of meat 184 

Boat, transportation of food animals 

by 10 

Body Ij^mph glands 4,1. 51 

Boiler house 385 

Boil'ng of meat 76, 79, 162 

Boiling test 137 

Bolt apparatuses 21, 22, 23 

Bolt hammer 21 

Bone 42 

as offal 35 

Bone tissue, diseases of 205 

Bone marrow 42 

of calf 58 

of cattle 58 

of goat 59 

of hog 59 

of sheep 59 

Bookkeeping of inspections 151 

Boophilus species 254; 

Boracic acid, conserving with 89 

test for 342 

Boroglyceride 891 

Bothriocephalus latus 229,239,355 

Bothriocephalus liguloides 239 

Botriomycosis 277 

Botulismus 364 

Breaking down processes in connec- 
tive tissue 204 

Bradset 313 

Branding stamp 12, 161 

Brine 87 

Broad tapeworm of man . . 229, 239, 353 

Bromatology i 

Broncho-pneumonia of calves 311 

Brucin reaction (test for saltpeter) . 341 
Buffalo meat distinguished from beef 70 
Bulging of cans 340 



Page 

Bull, characteristics of the meat of 58 

Bull meat, odor of 185 

Bullet-shooting apparatus 22 

Burning of small parts of carcasses. 178 

stove after Kori 178 

Burying of meat 180 

Butter refractometer 344 

Butterine 94 

Buying of food animals 4 

Cadaver bacilli 280 

Calcareo-fibrous nodules in the lungs 214 

Calcification 198 

presternal 206 

multiple 210 

Calf, age and maturity of 16 

definition of 2 

diarrhea 319 

diphtheria ' 318 

fever 324 

meat, inflation of 27 

peculiarities of 58 

paralysis, septic 296 

paralysis, suppurative 299 

ruffles 34 

Canned meat 79, 80 

inspection of 340 

poisonous 365 

Carbolic odor of meat 335 

Carceag of sheep (parasitic ictero- 

hematuria) 256 

Carcinomatosis 200 

Carne pura 79 

Carnifices 368 

Caro porosa 344 

Caseation . 196 

Cat, distinguishing of meat from 

rabbit 64 

Catarrhal fever of cattle, malignant. 317 

Caviar 9/1. 

examination of 346 

Cartilage 42 

diseases of 206 

Central nervous system, diseases of. 217 

Cerebral bladder-worm cyst 233 

Cerebro-spinal meningitis of horses. 217 

Chalicosis nodosa of the liver 209 

of the lungs 214 

Chargue dulce 79 

Cheiranthus hispidus 228 

Chemistry of the tissues and organs. 36 

Chemical conserving methods 87 

destruction of meat 178 

Chicken cholera 348 

diphtheria 350 

favus 348 

meat, appearance of 202 

pest 349 

pox 348 

tuberculosis 350 

Chlorine odor of meat 335 

Cholemia 322 

Cholera of fowls 348 



Index 



?<'Jo 



Cholera dissemination b\- mcit 333 

Chopped meat 71 

bacterial contents of 71 

examination of 337 

poisonings 364 

Circulatory apparatus 215 

disturbances 190 

Clams, poisonous 356 

Classification of food anima's for 

market quotations 6 

Cloudy swelling 194 

Coccidiae of the skin 225 

intestinal mucosa 232, 23P, 

Coccidium fuscum 232 

oviforme 231 

perforans 232 

^oenurus cerebralis 233, 234 

Cold, preserving of meat by 83 

slaughtering 29 

storage geese 350 

Coli bacteria as producers of sepsis. 294 

in pyemia 299 

Collecting box for condemned meat. 171 

Garth's 177 

Color changes of the udder in boiKng 213 

Coloring of meat 7^, 338 

Coloring substances, test for 338 

Colpitis follicularis infectiosa 212 

Comb scab in fowl 348 

Comparative anatomy of the viscera 5 
Composition of meats and meat- 
food products 40 

Compression machine 85 

Compressor for trichina inspection. 150 
Compulsory slaughter in public ab- 
attoirs ^77 

Concrement 198 

lime 203 

Condemnations 162 

Condemned meat, disposition of. . . 170 
Condemned meats, collecting box 

for ij'i 

utilizing plants for 384 

room 138 

Conditionally passed meat 162 

confiscates utilizing plants for. . 384 

collecting box for 171 

Connective tissue 39 

diseases of 203 

Connective tissue mite 348 

Conserves, preparation of 79 

examination of 344 

Conserving of meat 71,78 

Conserving by closing out of air. . 79 
Contagious pleuro-pneumonia of cat- 
tle 309 

Cooking of meat 76,79, 162 

Cooling rooms 85, 384 

Corned beef 80 

brown 80 

mutton 80 

pork 80 



I 'aw 

Cottonseed oil, adulteration of fat 

with 03 

test for 346 

Cow, age of 20 

definition of 2 

peculiarities of meat of 58 

pox , 290 

Cow's udder, blue coloration of.... 335 

Crabs, examination of 356 

diseases of 356 

fraudulent substitution for 356 

Culinary preparation of meat 75 

Cracklings 92 

Crustaceans, peculiarities of meat of 61 

examination of 356 

Cryptorchid boars, sexual odor of. . 185 

Cutting the throat for bleeding. ... 24 
Cvsticerci as cause of lime concre- 

ments 203 

cellulosae 240 

inermis, s. bovis 243 

pisiformis 233 

tenuicollis 232, 241 

cause of peritonitis 210 

Cystic formation of the heart valves 216 

Cystic kidney 212 

Cystodites nodus 348 

Davainea mutabilis 348 

Dead animals 189 

Dead born animals 182 

Decomposition of meat 328 

Deer, age of 351 

distinguishing the meat from 

beef 70 

from sheep and goat 63 

measles of 239, 353 

sex of 352 

Degenerations 195 

of muscles 202 

Demodex scabies 223, 224 

Dermatocoptes mites 224 

Dermatoryctes mutans 34.8 

Diamond skin disease 303 

Diary inspection book 151 

Differentiating signs of the various 

meats 63 

Diffused lymphadenia of the mucous 

membrane of the abomasum 207 

Digestability of meat 75 

Digestive apparatus, diseases of. ... 20 

lymph glands of the 43 

weight of . 5 

Diphtheria of calves 318 

of fowls 350 

of the abomasum 207 

Dipylidium caninum 229 

Diseased meat, influence of cooking. 76 

of pickling 89 

of smoking 91 

Diseases, constitutional 217 

Diseases of the blood 217 

Disinfection plant for railroad cars. 388 



394 



Index 



Pag* 

Disposition of condemned meat.... 170 

Distemper of horses 319 

Distillation, dry for destruction of 

meat 178 

Distomatosis 229 

Distomum felineum 355 

Dog abattoir 383 

Dog, as food animal 2 

distinguishing of meat from 

pork 64 

peculiarities -of meat of 60 

Dourine 257 

Draw-back harness for transporting 

animals 8 

Dressed weight 4 

Dressing of carcasses 26 

Dry distillation for disposing of 

meat 178 

Drying of meat 79 

Duck, age of 348 

Dues for inspection 152 

Dysentery, hemorrhagic of cattle... 231 

Ear tags 13 

Eber's test for putrefaction 330 

Echinococci 235 

Echinorhyncus gigas 228 

Eel blood, poisonous qualities of... 354 

Edema, malignant 291, 312 

Egg concrements ^ 350 

Elastic tissues 39 

Emaciated animals 183 

Emaciation 183 

Embolism 192 

Emergency slaughter 27 

inspection in 141 

meat poisoning from 359 

Emmerich 's slaughtering method ... 78 
Emphysema of the connective 
tissue 204 

mesentery 209 

Empyema 198 

Endocarditis 216 

valvularis verrucosa 302 

Engine houses 385 

Enteritidis bacilli as producers of 
sepsis 294 

in pyemia 299 

Enteritis hemorrhagica 296 

mycotica of cattle 314 

septica 296 

j_-nzootic iiciiiOgiOuinuria 250 

Enzymes of muscles 38 

Epithelioma contagiosum 348 

Eruptions of teeth 18 

Erysipelas (wound) 302 

Erythema 302 

Examination of inspectors 131 

Exhausted animals 188 

Extractive bodies in the muscles. ... 38 

Extraordinary meat inspection 156 

Fallow deer, sexual differences of. 353 



I'age 

Farcy 283 

Fasciola 229 

Fasting calf 183 

Fat 33, 39 

abnormal coloration of 187 

chemical constituents of 41 

prepared 92 

test for 344,345 

Fat stones 205 

Fattened calves 58 

steers 58 

Fat tissue 39 

diseases of 205 

structure and consistence of... 39 

Fatty acids 335 

Fatty degeneration 195 

Fatty infiltration 195 

Fatty necrosis of the pancreas .... 209 

multiple 20s 

Fauna, bromotologic i 

Fermentation in meat 327 

Ferments of the musculature 38 

Fetal meat 182 

Filaria equina 233 

piscium 355 

Fish, diseases of 355 

examination of 353, 354 

measles 355 

poisoning from 353 

Fish meat, characteristics of 61 

deceptions with 355 

poisonous 353 

ripening process in 75 

Fish poisonings 356, 364 

Fish pox ■ 355 

Fish roe, poisonous . 353 

Flat worms 229 

Flaying disinfector 172 

Flour, addition to sausage ^2 

Flour mite 334 

Flukes 229 

Food animals i 

abnormal conditions and dis- 
eases of 182 

age 16 

anatomy of viscera 54 

boat transportation 10 

classification for market quota- 
tions 6 

dressing of 26 

guarantee 15 

importation of 10 

insurance of 12 

slaughtering 20 

traffic with ■' 3 

transportation 7 

utilization 3° 

Food aspiration _. 214 

Food preparations derived from ani- 
mals 91 

Foot and mouth disease 285 

Foot rot in sheep 288 

Forest disease 256 



Index 



395 



Page 

Formaldehyde, test for 342 

Fowl arthritis 350 

tuberculosis 350 

Fraudulent substitutions of meat... 62 

Freezing, conserving meat by 87 

Freibank 153, 385 

Frog 357 

Frontal blow 21 

Frozen meat, inspection of 340 

Gad boils 223 

Gad fly 222, 225 

of sheep 225 

Gallics, meat food of the 368 

Gall sick 256 

Game, age of 351 

diseases of 353 

• peculiarities of meat of 60 

post-mortem changes of 353 

Game and cattle plague 316 

Gangrene 196 

Gastro-intestinal canal, weight of . . 5 

Gastrophilus 227 

Gastrus larvae 227 

Genito-urinary apparatus, diseases of 210 

Germanians, meat food of the 368 

Gid of sheep 233 

Glassy degeneration 196 

Glanders 282 

nodules in the lungs 214, 283 

Glycerides 41 

Glycogen in muscles 38 

demonstration of 6^ 

Gnathostoma hispidum 228 

Goat as food animal 2 

distinguishing the meat from 
mutton 6'i 

from deer 63 

peculiarities of meat of 59 

Goldbeater skins 34 

Goose, age of 348 

meat from cold storage 350 

Granular atrophy of the liver 208 

eruptions of hogs 216, 225 

Granulomata 200 

Grape fungus disease 278 

Grape sugar in horse meat 67 

Grass-fed cattle 187 

Green discoloration of fat 205 

Ground meat 71 

bacterial contents of 71 

examination of t^'^'j 

poisonmgs by 364 

Gruel kitchens 388 

Guarantee, in trading with food ani- 
mals 15 

Gut room 384 

Gutting 26 

Haddock, conserving of 79 

Halisteresis assium 221 

Hanging arrangement in abattoirs.. 383 



Page 

Hare, age of 351 

distinguishing the meat from 

cat meat 64 

Hartmann's carcass-destroying appa- 
ratus 175 

Haut-gotit 327 

Heart 56 

of cattle 57 

Heat, conduction of meat "jj 

Heathcock, determining age of . . . . 352 

Heat stroke 302 

Hemangioma of the liver 208 

Hematoidin 191 

Hematopines 225 

Hemoglobin, in hemorrhages 191 

Hemoglobinemia of cattle 254 

of horses 324 

Hemoglobinuria of cattle 254,314 

of horses 324 

Hemorrhages, time of occurrence. . . 191 

multiple of the muscles 201 

of lungs 213 

Hemorrhodin 88 

Hemosiderin 191 

Hemosporidiosis 254 

Henneguya Zschokkei 355 

Hepatitis, chronic intersitial 208 

Hermit tapeworm 240 

Hide houses 384 

Hide salting establishment 384 

History of meat hygiene 367 

in Canada 376 

in the United States 370 

Hochmuth's destruction apparatus.. 177 

Hodgkins disease 220 

Hog as food animal i 

distinguishing meat from dog 

meat 64 

emergency slaughter of 27 

influence of feeding on meat of. 59 

peculiarities of meat of 59 

Hog bristles, utilization of 35 

Hog cholera 306 

Hoofs and claws as ofifal 35 

Hook-frames in abattoirs for small 

stock 383 

Horn rings of cows 20 

Horns, development for determining 

age 17 

Horse, as food animal i 

distinguishing from beef 66 

distinguishing salted horse in- 
testines from cattle intestines. 146 

peculiarities of meat of 59 

Horse abattoir 383 

Horse mange 223 

Horse malaria 256 

Horse meat, test for 67 

House fly 333 

Hyaline degeneration 196 

Hydremia 218 

Hydronephrosis 212 

Hvdrometra 212 



596 



Indej 



Page 

Hygrometer 87 

Hyperemia igo 

Hyperplasia 200 

Hypertrophy 200 

Hj'poderma larvae 222 

Hypophrenic abscesses 210 

Ice boxes g. 

Ice houses _ _ go 

Ice production, artificial 86 

Ichthyosismus 36^ 

Ichthyotoxicon 354 

Icterus T-,2 

Imbibition, hemorrhagic 190 

Immature animals 182 

Importation of food animals and 

meat jq 

Incising of lymph glands 135 

Incompletely bled animals 188 

Indigestions of food animals,' influ- 
ence on weight 6 

Induration 104 

Infarct, hemorrhages 192 

in the spleen 216 

Infectious growths 200 

Infectious diseases 2^7 

Inferior quality meat 170 

Infectious vaginal catarrh of cattle. . 212 

Infiltrations of tissues 194 

Inflammations jo. 

Inflammatory disease of the head in 

cattle oiy 

Inflammatory processes of muscles.. 202 

of connective tissue 204 

Inflation of carcasses 27,204 

Influences of feeding on food ani-' 

^ mals 185 

Influenza of horses 319 

Injection pickling 88 

Ink stamps j C9 

Insect larvfe on meat 333 

Inspection of imported meat... 145,180 

Inspection office ' 38^ 

reports ' " jej 

Inspection of slaughtered animals'! 134 
dispositions as the result of... 158 

Inspector's assistant 132 

Intestines e4 

multiple hemorrhages of 208 

Intestinal emphysema 209 

Intestinal parasites, influence on 

odor of meat. igg 228 

Intoxication, putrid ' 300 

Intoxications in food animals ." 320 

Invasion, diseases of 222 

Iridescence of muscles 202 

Iridescence of pickled meat 341 

Ischemia jqq 

Israelitish meat laws 367 

Ixidioplasma bigeminum 254 

Ixodes reduvius 254 



Page 

Jaundice 322 

malignant of dogs 256 

Jelly sausage 74 

Jerked beef 79 

Johne 's disease 263 

Ketone in fat 335 

Kidneys 56 

weight of in cattle 57 

Kori 's burning stove 178 

Laboratory inspectors 132 

Laminosioptes cysticola 348 

Land flavor 353 

Lard 93 

artificial 93 

examination of 344 

test of 344 

Large stock, as food animals 1 

dressing of 26 

Leaker (defective can) '. 82 

Legal means of redress in meat 

inspection 150 

Leg-scab of fowl 348 

Leucorrhea 212 

Leukemia 219 

Lice 225 

Lime concrements from cysticerci 

tenuicollis 232 

Lime concrements in muscles 203 

Live weight of food animals 4 

Liver _ 55 

telangiectasis of 208 

weight in cattle 57 

Liver fluke 229 

migrated 233 

Liver necrosis, multiple 208 

Livid areas 190 

Lobster, examination of 356 

conserves 356 

Long clear 33 

Long fat backs 2ii 

Losses in meat in its preparation for 

food yy 

Lumbago of horses 324 

Lung nodules, calcareo-fibrous. 214,285 

Lmigs 55 

diseases of 213 

weight in cattle 57 

Lung parasites 226 

L3'mphadenia of the abomasum, dif- 
fused 207 

Lymph glands 43 ■ 

incising of 135 

Lymph nodes, size, numbers and lo- 
cation 43 

incising of 135 

Lymph vessels 43 

Lyssa 281 

iMacular hemorrhagic dermatitis in 

hogs 303 

iMachines, refrigeration 8s 



Index 



397 



Pago 

Maggots on meat ^^3 

Malaria of cattle 256 

of horses 256 

Mai de caderas 256 

Malformations 201 

Malignant catarrhal fever of cattle. 317 

Malignant edema 291, 312 

Malleus 282 

Management of abattoirs 385 

of stockyards 389 

Manure houses (dung yards).. 384,388 

Margarin law 94 

Market halls in stock yards 387 

Market quotations for food animals. 6 

Marking of inspected meat 159 

foreign 181 

» of injured animals .13 

Mastitis 213 

septic 213 

Maturity of calves for slaughter... 16 

Measles 239 

autoinfection with 242 

in fish 3S5 

in game ; . . . . 239, 240, 353 

regulations for judgment... 245,246 

Meat changes, post-mortem 327 

Meat, conserving of 18 

constituents of 36 

decomposition 327 

disposition of condemned 162 

distinguishing various kinds of. 62 

fetal 182 

flies 333 

Meat extract 41, 91 

examination of 344 

Meat flour, preparation of 79 

American 92 

Meat foods, obtaining of i 

composition 40, 41 

Meat-food poisoning 364, 365 

Meat, fraudulent substitutions of . . 62 

Kosher 27 

Meat inspection, ambulatory 156 

designation of animals in 2 

extraordinary 156 

history of 367 

law 127 

performance of 133, 155 

regulations 96 

statistics i=;i 

Meat inspectors (practical) 132 

Meat, marking of 159 

of crustaceans and mollusks .... 61 

of fish 61 

of food animals i, 30, 57 

of game 60 

of poultry 60 

of reptiles, etc 61 

peculiarities of 57 

Meat paste 74 

Meat poisonings 358 

as a result of bac. enteritidis. . 358 

from bac. coli 362 

from bac. botulinus . . . , 364 



Page 

Meat, post-mortem changes in 327 

preparation of 71 

prohibition from importing 10 

qualities of 31 

ripening of 38 

Meat sausage 72 

Meat sterilizers 162 

technique of inspection of 134 

turning gray i;i cooking y^ 

Melano-sarcqmatosis 199 

Melanosis 198 

Melting put of fat 169 

Meningitis, cerebro-spinalis 217 

Mesenteric emphysemp, 209 

Metallic poisons ,in me^t 335 

Metaplasia 200 

Method of procedure in meat inspec- 
tion 138 

Metritis, septic 296 

Microorganisms, action of pickling 

on 89 

smoking .on 91 

Miescher 's sacs 252 

Milk fever 324 

Milk nodes 213 

Mohammedan food la.ws 368 

Mollusks 61 

Moniezia 229 

Morbus maculosus . 297 

Morbus nodi^losus of fish 355 

Morphology of tissues and organs.. 36 

Mould formation on meat 331 

Mucin-metamorphosis 196 

Mucoid degeneration 196 

Mucor 331 

Multiple fat necrosis 205 

Multiple hemorrhages of muscles... 201 

Murexid reaction 350 

Musca vomitoria 333 

don,iestica 33^ 

Muscle actinomycosis 203 

Muscle degeneration 202 

Muscle distomes in fish 355 

Muscle coloring mattej, retaining of 71 

Muscle lymph glands 43-51 

Muscle samples for trichina exami- 
nation 150 

Muscles, turning gray in cooking. . . 73 

in pickling 88 

Muscular hemorrhages 201 

Musculatur 36 

Mussel poisoning" 356 

Mutton, peculiarities of meat 59 

Mycosis astacina 356 

Mytilismus 356, 364 

Myxqbolus 355 

Myxosporidia 355 

Muzzle, prepared as food 35 

Nagana of cattle 256 

Navel infection, septic 296 

pyemic 299 

Neat 's foot oil 35 

Neck stretcher for schachten 24 



398 



Index 



Page 

Necrosis 196 

of fat 209 

Necropliorus bacilli, in the liver... 209 

cause of calf diphtheria 318 

Negri bodies 282 

Nephritis 210, 211 

Neuroma of the intercostal nerves.. 215 

Nettle fever 303 

Nitric oxyhemo-chromogen 76 

Nitrate of potassium, test for 341 

Nodular disease of fish 355 

Nutritive value of meat 75 

Obligations, conditions of 15 

Ochronosis '. 199 

Odor of meat 57 

abnormal 184, 335 

absorption 186 

examination of 137 

Oestrus larvee 222, 225 

ovis 225 

Oflfal 30, 34 

Oidiuni astaci 356 

Oil, conserving with 82 

Oil sardines 83 

Olein 92 

Oleomargarin 92, 94 

Oleo oil, preparation of 94 

Oligemia 217 

Omphalo-phlebitis, septic 296 

pyemic 299 

Organs, lymph glands of 43 

diseases of 201 

parasites of 222 

used for the preparation of 

therapeutical remedies 34 

Osteomalacia 221 

Osteomyelitis, suppurative 297 

Osteopsathyrosis 221 

Ovaries, comparative anatomy. 57 

poisonous from fish 353 

utilization of 34 

Over sticking 25 

Overheated meat 327 

Oxyuris 228 

Oysters, diseases of 356 

Palisade worms 226 

Palpating animals in trading 3 

Pancreas 55 

necrosis of 209 

Pancreatic peptone 92 

Paparika bacon 79 

Paramphistomum conicum 231 

Parasites, of brain 233 

of digestive apparatus 227 

of lungs 226 

Pleura and peritoneum 232 

of skin 222 

Parasitic infestations, toxins of.... 229 

Parasitic diseases of organs 222 

Paratyphoid meat poisonings 358, 

360, 361, 364 



Page 

Parenchymatous degeneration 194 

Parturient symptomatic anthrax 292,312 

rarturition fever 324 

paresis 324 

Pasture stock i 

Pelvic cavity, lymph glands of 43 

Penetration of meat by high tem- 
perature TJ 

Penicillium 331 

Pentastomes 226 

Pentastomum denticulatum 234 

Pentastomum taenioides 226 

Pearly disease 257 

virulence of meat of 266 

Pepsin pepton 92 

Peptic ulcers 207 

Pepton 92 

Pericarditis 215, 296, 300 

traumatic 300 

Peritoneum, diseases of... 209 

Peritonitis 210, 232, 296 

Pernicious anemia 217 

Petechiae of the pleura 215 

Petechial fever 297 

Pheasant, age of 352 

Plebectasis 216 

Phosphorescence of meat 332 

Pickled meat, examination of 341 

Pickling fluid, concentration . 87, 169, 366 

Pickling of meat 87, 169 

Pickling, test for thorough 341 

Pigeon, age of 347 

Pigment formation 198 

Pigmentation of fat, black 205 

of pleura 215 

Piroplasmosis 254 

Pitch mange 216 

Pithing 24 

Placenta, retained 300 

Pleuritis 215 

septic 296 

Pleuro-pneumonia, contagious 309 

Pneumatosis of the mesentery 209 

Pneumonia, caseous 299 

Podewil's carcass-destroying appa- 
ratus 173 

Poisoning 320 

Poisonous fish 353 

Police abattoir 385 

Pollution of the lungs 214 

Polyarthritis septica ' 296 

pyemic 299 

Polymyositis 202 

Pork measles 240 

Porschen of kosher meat 27 

Post-mortem changes of meat 327 

Post-mortem hypostasis 190 

Post-mortem spots 190 

Poultry, age of 347 

diseases of 348 

post-mortem changes of meat. . . 350 
Poultry meat, characteristics of.... 60 

influences of feeding on 186 



Index 



399 



Page 

Pox 288 

of chicken 348 

of fish 355 

Precipitation method for distinguish- 
ing meat 62 

Pregnanacy in animals, claims on 

seller 187 

Premier jus 94 

Preparation of meats 71 

Prepared meat, examination of 337 

Preservative salts 89 

Pressure steam apparatus for dis- 
posing of meat 172 

Pricking stamp 13 

Private slaughter houses 377 

Procedure of inspection 137 

Production of meat 71 

I'rojection trichina microscopes.... 150 

Proteus bacteria 328 

in meat poisoning 362 

Protozoa of the digestive apparatus. 231 

general affections due to 252 

Pseudo-aphtha 287 

Pseudo-anthrax bacilli 280 

Pseudo-leukemia 220 

Pseudo-trichinae 250 

Pseudo-tuberculosis 272 

Psorospermial bodies 253 

Pulley harness for transportation of 

animals 8 

Purpura hemorrhagica 297 

Pus, contamination of meat with... 299 

Pus forming organisms 197 

Putrefaction of meat 328 

Putrefaction, test for 330 

Putrefaction bacteria in sapremia . . 300 

Putrid intoxication 300 

Pyelonephritis 211 

Pyemia 297 

cause of meat poisoning 350 

Pyobacillosis 299, 306 

Pyonephrosis 11 

Pyometra 212 

Pj^orrhea 198 

Quality classes of food animals 3,6 

of meat 30 

Quarantine abattoirs 38S 

Quarantine yards 388 

Rabies 281 

Rabbit, age of 35i 

as food animal 2 

distinguishing the meat from cat 

meat 64 

Rabbit meat peculiarities 60 

production of 3 

Rabbit measles 353 

Railroad platforms 388 

Railroad sickness 10 

transportation of food animals. . 9 

Rainey 's bodies 252 

Ram, odor of meat of 185 



Rancidity of fats 335 

Ray fungus disease 273 

Reaction of the musculatur 38 

test for 135 

Reddening of meat 76, 90, 332, 338 

Red diarrhea of cattle 231 

of calves 319 

Reductive properties of musculature 39 

Refract ometer after Zeiss- Wollny. . 344 

Refrigerating railroad car 83 

Refrigeration plant machine 85 

Regulations for meat inspection 96 

Reindeer pest 312 

Reinspection of meat 146 

Rennet ferment 34 

Replacement of teeth 18 

Reptiles, peculiarities of meat of.. 61 
Respiratory apparatus, lymph glands 

of 48 

diseases of 213 

Rest for transported animals 8 

Retained placenta 300 

Retaining room 137 

Rhachitis 220 

Rhipicephalus 254 

Rib bellies ^^ 

Rigor mortis 37 

ferment 37 

Rinderpest 314 

Ripening of meat 38, 75, 327 

Roasting of meat 76 

Roe, poisonous qualities of 353 

Romans, meat foods of the 368 

Rotation of spleen 216 

Rotting of meat 328 

Round worms of the digestive appa- 
ratus 227 

Rumen, traumatic inflammation of. . 206 

Salicylic acid, test for 342 

Sanitary establishment 385 

Sanitary slaughter house ■. 385 

Sausage 71 

casings, coloring of y;^ 

casings, dirt in 339 

examination of 337 

fat 93 

filling 7;;^ 

poisonings from 364 

Sausage, turning gray of 73, 339 

Salt, conserving of meat with 87 

test for 341 

Salting of meat for conserving 87 

Saltpeter, test for 341 

Sample taking for trichina inspection 150 

Sapremia 300 

Saprophites 300 

toxigenic 366 

Sarcocystis miesheriana 252 

Sarcomatosis 200 

Sarcoptic mange 223, 224 

Sarcosporidiosis 252 

Sarkophaga carnavia. 333 

Scabies mites 223 



400 



Index 



Schachteu of food animals 24 

regulations on 29 

Sea eel 355 

salmon 355 

Semitic food laws 25, 27, 367 

Sex, determination of 142 

Sexual organs as offal 35 

Scalding of slaughtered hogs 26 

Scaly feet of fowl 34S 

Scarlet fever, dissemination by meat ^^3 

Schweinsberger disease 208 

Sclerotic condition of fat tissue.... 205 

Sclerostomae 228 

Securing harness for food animals.. 8 
Sepsis 293 

cause of meat poisonings 359 

Septicemia heniorrhagica 316 

Septicopyemia 294 

Serum diagnosis for distinguishing 
■ meat 62 

in meat poisonings 361 

Sexual peculiarities of meat 184 

Shaking disease of sheep 225 

Sheep as food animals 2 

distinguishing of meat from goat 63 

from deer 63 

Sheep pox 289 

scabies 223 

Shooting of food animals 22 

bolt apparatus 22 

Short clear , ^2 

Short fat back ^3 

Signatera 354 

Simulia ornata 316 

Singeing of hogs 26 

Skeleton muscles, diseases of 201 

Skin, of food animals 34 

diseases of 216 

parasites 222 

Slaughter axe 21 

Slaughter houses in Rome 368 

public 377 

Slaughter mask 21 

Slaughtering machine for hogs 24 

methods with stunning 21 

without stunning 24 

regulation for 29 

Slaughtering of animals for Jews.. 27 

Small stock as food animals i 

Smoked products, examination of.. 343 

Smoked salmon 94 

Smoking, conserving bj^ 90 

Snuffle disease of hogs 200 

Soiled meat, Avith anthrax bacilli.. 280 

with pus 299 

Soiling of meat 324 

Sooty mange 216 

Sour side 327 

Souring of meat 327 

of fats 335 

Spinal meningitis, infections of 

horses 324 

Spiradenitis coccidiosa 225 



Page 
Spleen 55 

rotation of the 216 

weight in cattle 57 

Spotted disease of lobsters and crabs 356 
Spotted kidney of calves, white.... 210 

Spring-bolt apparatus 22 

Squeezing out passages or cavities of 

slaughtered animals 135 

Stables in stock j-ards 387 

Stock yards 386 

Stamps for meat 159 

Stamping ink 161 

Staphylococci, as producers of sepsis 294 

suppuration 297 

Starch flour addition to sausage 

filli"§"s 337, 339 

Starch from spices in sausage 337 

Steam digester 172 

Steaming of meat 76 

of meat passed conditionally... 162 

Steer, definition for 2 

Sterilizers for meat 162 

Sterilizing of meat by boiling 79 

Stinging fly 333 

Stomach 54 

contents, utilization of 35 

worm epizootic of sheep 227 

Stomatitis bovis 287 

Stomoxys calcitrans 333 

Streptococcus melanogenes 324 

vaginitis bovis 213 

Streptococci, as producers of sepsis. 294 

suppuration 297 

Strongylides of the lungs 226,305 

of the intestines 227 

Stunning of food animals 21 

by blow on the base of the head. 23 

Sturgeon calves 58 

Sucking mite 224 

Suffocated meat 327 

Sulphites, test for 342 

Sulphurous acid, conserving by 89 

test for 342 

Sulphate of hydrogen, test for 330 

Supervision of ante-mortem and 

post-mortem inspection 152 

Suppuration 197 

Suppurative osteomyelitis 2Q'7 

Surra of cattle 256 

Sw^eller (defective can) 82 

Swelling, cloudy 194 

Sweetbread 34, 56 

Swine erysipelas. . -. 301 

Swine fever 306 

Swine plague 304 

pyemia 290 

Symplectaptes cysticola 348 

Symptomatic anthrax 311 

parturient 292, 312 

Taenia solium 240 

toxins of 229 

saginata 243 



Index 



401 



Tallow 9^ 

cxaminalion of 345 

Tallow factories 3'^4 

Tapeworm disease of sheep 229 

Tasajo 79 

Taste alinonnalities of meat 184 

Technifjiie of meat inspection 134 

'I'cetli, determining age by 18,19 

'I'eleangiectasis of the liver 208 

Temperature, penetration into meat. 77 

Tetanolysin 290 

Tctanotoxin 290 

Tetanus 290 

Tctrarhyncus larvae 355 

Texas fever 256 

'I'lierapeutical remedies prepared 

from (H'gans 34 

Thorougli chilling- of measled beef. 170 

Thorough pickling, test for 341 

Thrombosis 192 

Thymus gland S('> 

Thyroid glands, ulilix.ation of 34 

comparative analumy of 5O 

Ticks 254 

Tick fever of cattle 256 

Tinea galli 348 

'J'issues, diseases of 201 

Tobacco odor of meat 335 

T(jngue 54 

Toxinemia 293 

Toxins of parasitic infestations.... 229 

Toxins of putrefaction 33' 

Traffic in food animals 3 

Tragacauth in sausage 337 

Transportation, losses in food ani- 
mals from 4 

of food animals 7 

regulations on 10 

Transportation by boat 10 

by driving 7 

by railroad 9 

wagon for cattle 9 

Transudation 192 

Traumatic iullannnation of rumen.. 2of) 

pericarditis 215 

Traumatic ])neumonia 305 

Trepha 27 

Trichina 245 

'i'richina inspection I47> 250 

Tricliina inspection association T49 

Trichina microscopes 150 

Triciiinosis 246 

Trichocephalus affinis 228 

Triebern of kosher meat 27 

Tripe 34 

room 384 

Triste/.a of cattle 256 

Trypanosomes 256 

Tsetse-fly disease 256 

Tuberculosis 257 

dissemination of 259 

examination for 264 

27 



Tuberculosis, forms of 260 

outline showing the forms of 
tuberculosis, and disposal of 

meat 268 

prevalence of 2O1 

virulence of meat in 266 

Tuberculosis of fowls 250 

Tuberculosis vaccination, inlluence 

on meat 270 

Tumors 200 

Turpentine od(jr of meat 335 

Typhoid, dissemination by meat 333,356 

Tyroglyphus farin;e 334 

Tyrosin deposits in j)arreled livers.. 343 

Udder 57 

diseases of 213 

United States inspected and con- 
demned 1 38 

and passed 138 

United ^Stales retained \S7, 138 

United States suspect 133 

Uremia 323 

Uric acid deposits in poultry 350 

Urinary apparatus, diseases of.. 210,323 

lymph glands of the 50 

Urinary l)la(lder 56 

Urticaria 303 

Uterus, comparative anatomy of. ... 56 

diseases of 212 

Utilization of food animals 30 

Vaccination pox of calves 290 

Vacuoles in meat 344 

Vaginial catarrh of cattle, infectious 212 

Vaginitis 213 

V ariola 288 

Veiiuleth and JCllenberger meat de- 
struction apparatus 177 

Verminous pneumonia 305 

Vesicular exanthema of horses and 

cattle 315 

Veterinary inspectors, resi)onsibility 

of 131 

Veterinary police in abattoirs 386 

Veterinary sii])ervision of abat- 
toirs 385,389 

Veterinary supervision of meat in- 
spection 152, 158 

Villous heart 216 

Viscera 34 

comparative anatomy of 54 

lymph glands of 43 

of cattle, absolute and relative 
weight of 6 

Waste water clearing plants 385 

Water, absorbtion of sausage filling ^7 

addition to sausage fdling 72 

supply of abattoirs 384 

of stock yards 38S 



402 



Indejc 



Page 

Weight of viscera, absolute and rel- 
ative 6, 57 

losses in culinary preparation 

of meat 75 

White sausage 74 

White scours of calves 313 

Wild duck 352 

goose 352 

Woodcock, age of 352 

Wooden tongue 275 



Page 

Wound erysipelas 302 

Wound, septic 297 

Xanthosis 199 

Yellow discoloration of fat 187 

as result of feeding 189 

Yellow gait 213 

Young cattle, definition for 2 

peculiarities of meat of 58 



Plate T 




Section of a tuberculous udder of a cow with corresponding lymph glands 




Plate II 




Fig. 3. Section of a 
tuberculous bronchia] 
lymph gland from a cow. 



Fig. I. Section of a beef lung showing contagious pleuro-pneumonia 




Fig. 2. Angiomata in a beef liver 



Fig. 4. Section of a 

mesenteric lymph gland 

of a cow with pentas- 
tome foci. 



Bulletin No. 38, B. A. I. 



Plate III 




Tuberculous Liver of Cow 



Bulletin No. 38, R. A. I. 



Plate IV 




ruberculous Lungs of I log 



Bulletin No. 38, B. A. I. 



Plate V 




Tuberculous Sijlecn of Hog [ • Spleen of Healthy Hog 



Bulletin No. 38, B. A. I. 



Plate VI 




Tuberculosis of Intestine of a Child, caused by a bacillus of bovine type 




Tuberculous Ovary of Covir 



Bulletin No. 52, B. A. I. 



Plate VII 




o 



H 



Ilulletin No. 5:.;, B. A. 1, 



Plate VIII 




Tuberculous Lnn^' of Calf, caused by subcutaueous inoculaliou willi pure ciilliu-e 

liuniau tuljcrculosis 



B06' 



too 



^, 



